Articles | Volume 15, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-4373-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-4373-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Development and technical paper
| 
09 Jun 2022
Development and technical paper |
| 09 Jun 2022
| 09 Jun 2022
Implementation and evaluation of open boundary conditions for sea ice in a regional coupled ocean (ROMS) and sea ice (CICE) modeling system
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway
Jostein Brændshøi
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
Dmitry Shcherbin
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway
Pauline Barras
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway
Jon Albretsen
Institute of Marine Research, P.O. Box 1870 Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, Norway
Yvonne Gusdal
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
Nicholas Szapiro
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
Andreas Martinsen
Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø, Norway
Annette Samuelsen
Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre, Bergen, Norway
Keguang Wang
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
Jens Boldingh Debernard
The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway
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Pedro Duarte, Philipp Assmy, Karley Campbell, and Arild Sundfjord
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 841–857, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-841-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-841-2022, 2022
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Sea ice modeling is an important part of Earth system models (ESMs). The results of ESMs are used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their reports. In this study we present an improvement to calculate the exchange of nutrients between the ocean and the sea ice. This nutrient exchange is an essential process to keep the ice-associated ecosystem functioning. We found out that previous calculation methods may underestimate the primary production of the ice-associated ecosystem.
Marina Durán Moro, Ann Kristin Sperrevik, Thomas Lavergne, Laurent Bertino, Yvonne Gusdal, Silje Christine Iversen, and Jozef Rusin
The Cryosphere, 18, 1597–1619, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1597-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1597-2024, 2024
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Individual satellite passes instead of daily means of sea ice concentration are used to correct the sea ice model forecast in the Barents Sea. The use of passes provides a significantly larger improvement of the forecasts even after a 7 d period due to the more precise information on temporal and spatial variability contained in the passes. One major advantage of the use of satellite passes is that there is no need to wait for the daily mean availability in order to update the forecast.
Veli Çağlar Yumruktepe, Erik Askov Mousing, Jerry Tjiputra, and Annette Samuelsen
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6875–6897, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6875-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6875-2023, 2023
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We present an along BGC-Argo track 1D modelling framework. The model physics is constrained by the BGC-Argo temperature and salinity profiles to reduce the uncertainties related to mixed layer dynamics, allowing the evaluation of the biogeochemical formulation and parameterization. We objectively analyse the model with BGC-Argo and satellite data and improve the model biogeochemical dynamics. We present the framework, example cases and routines for model improvement and implementations.
Keguang Wang, Alfatih Ali, and Caixin Wang
The Cryosphere, 17, 4487–4510, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4487-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-4487-2023, 2023
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A simple, efficient. and accurate data assimilation method, local analytical optimal nudging (LAON), is introduced to assimilate high-resolution sea ice concentration in a pan-Arctic high-resolution coupled ocean and sea ice model. The method provides a new vision by nudging the model evolution to the optimal estimate forwardly, continuously, and smoothly. This method is applicable to the general nudging theory and applications in physics, Earth science, psychology, and behavior sciences.
Johannes Röhrs, Yvonne Gusdal, Edel S. U. Rikardsen, Marina Durán Moro, Jostein Brændshøi, Nils Melsom Kristensen, Sindre Fritzner, Keguang Wang, Ann Kristin Sperrevik, Martina Idžanović, Thomas Lavergne, Jens Boldingh Debernard, and Kai H. Christensen
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5401–5426, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5401-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5401-2023, 2023
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A model to predict ocean currents, temperature, and sea ice is presented, covering the Barents Sea and northern Norway. To quantify forecast uncertainties, the model calculates ensemble forecasts with 24 realizations of ocean and ice conditions. Observations from satellites, buoys, and ships are ingested by the model. The model forecasts are compared with observations, and we show that the ocean model has skill in predicting sea surface temperatures.
Veli Çağlar Yumruktepe, Annette Samuelsen, and Ute Daewel
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 3901–3921, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3901-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3901-2022, 2022
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We describe the coupled bio-physical model ECOSMO II(CHL), which is used for regional configurations for the North Atlantic and the Arctic hind-casting and operational purposes. The model is consistent with the large-scale climatological nutrient settings and is capable of representing regional and seasonal changes, and model primary production agrees with previous measurements. For the users of this model, this paper provides the underlying science, model evaluation and its development.
Pedro Duarte, Philipp Assmy, Karley Campbell, and Arild Sundfjord
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 841–857, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-841-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-841-2022, 2022
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Sea ice modeling is an important part of Earth system models (ESMs). The results of ESMs are used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their reports. In this study we present an improvement to calculate the exchange of nutrients between the ocean and the sea ice. This nutrient exchange is an essential process to keep the ice-associated ecosystem functioning. We found out that previous calculation methods may underestimate the primary production of the ice-associated ecosystem.
Ingo Bethke, Yiguo Wang, François Counillon, Noel Keenlyside, Madlen Kimmritz, Filippa Fransner, Annette Samuelsen, Helene Langehaug, Lea Svendsen, Ping-Gin Chiu, Leilane Passos, Mats Bentsen, Chuncheng Guo, Alok Gupta, Jerry Tjiputra, Alf Kirkevåg, Dirk Olivié, Øyvind Seland, Julie Solsvik Vågane, Yuanchao Fan, and Tor Eldevik
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 7073–7116, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-7073-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-7073-2021, 2021
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The Norwegian Climate Prediction Model version 1 (NorCPM1) is a new research tool for performing climate reanalyses and seasonal-to-decadal climate predictions. It adds data assimilation capability to the Norwegian Earth System Model version 1 (NorESM1) and has contributed output to the Decadal Climate Prediction Project (DCPP) as part of the sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). We describe the system and evaluate its baseline, reanalysis and prediction performance.
Sissal Vágsheyg Erenbjerg, Jon Albretsen, Knud Simonsen, Erna Lava Olsen, Eigil Kaas, and Bogi Hansen
Ocean Sci., 17, 1639–1655, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1639-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-1639-2021, 2021
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Here, we describe a strait that has narrow and shallow sills in both ends and is close to an amphidromic region. This generates tidally driven flows into and out of the strait, but with very different exchange rates across the entrances in both ends so that it behaves like a mixture between a strait and a fjord. Using a numerical model, we find a fortnightly signal in the net transport through the strait, generated by long-period tides. Our findings are verified by observations.
Ann Keen, Ed Blockley, David A. Bailey, Jens Boldingh Debernard, Mitchell Bushuk, Steve Delhaye, David Docquier, Daniel Feltham, François Massonnet, Siobhan O'Farrell, Leandro Ponsoni, José M. Rodriguez, David Schroeder, Neil Swart, Takahiro Toyoda, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Martin Vancoppenolle, and Klaus Wyser
The Cryosphere, 15, 951–982, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-951-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-951-2021, 2021
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We compare the mass budget of the Arctic sea ice in a number of the latest climate models. New output has been defined that allows us to compare the processes of sea ice growth and loss in a more detailed way than has previously been possible. We find that that the models are strikingly similar in terms of the major processes causing the annual growth and loss of Arctic sea ice and that the budget terms respond in a broadly consistent way as the climate warms during the 21st century.
Øyvind Seland, Mats Bentsen, Dirk Olivié, Thomas Toniazzo, Ada Gjermundsen, Lise Seland Graff, Jens Boldingh Debernard, Alok Kumar Gupta, Yan-Chun He, Alf Kirkevåg, Jörg Schwinger, Jerry Tjiputra, Kjetil Schanke Aas, Ingo Bethke, Yuanchao Fan, Jan Griesfeller, Alf Grini, Chuncheng Guo, Mehmet Ilicak, Inger Helene Hafsahl Karset, Oskar Landgren, Johan Liakka, Kine Onsum Moseid, Aleksi Nummelin, Clemens Spensberger, Hui Tang, Zhongshi Zhang, Christoph Heinze, Trond Iversen, and Michael Schulz
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 6165–6200, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-6165-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-6165-2020, 2020
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The second version of the coupled Norwegian Earth System Model (NorESM2) is presented and evaluated. The temperature and precipitation patterns has improved compared to NorESM1. The model reaches present-day warming levels to within 0.2 °C of observed temperature but with a delayed warming during the late 20th century. Under the four scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5), the warming in the period of 2090–2099 compared to 1850–1879 reaches 1.3, 2.2, 3.1, and 3.9 K.
Jiping Xie, Roshin P. Raj, Laurent Bertino, Annette Samuelsen, and Tsuyoshi Wakamatsu
Ocean Sci., 15, 1191–1206, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1191-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-1191-2019, 2019
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Two gridded sea surface salinity (SSS) products have been derived from the European Space Agency’s Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission. The uncertainties of these two products in the Arctic are quantified against two SSS products in the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Services, two climatologies, and other in situ data. The results compared with independent in situ data clearly show a common challenge for the six SSS products to represent central Arctic freshwater masses (<24 psu).
Caixin Wang, Robert M. Graham, Keguang Wang, Sebastian Gerland, and Mats A. Granskog
The Cryosphere, 13, 1661–1679, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1661-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1661-2019, 2019
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A warm bias and higher total precipitation and snowfall were found in ERA5 compared with ERA-Interim (ERA-I) over Arctic sea ice. The warm bias in ERA5 was larger in the cold season when 2 m air temperature was < −25 °C and smaller in the warm season than in ERA-I. Substantial anomalous Arctic rainfall in ERA-I was reduced in ERA5, particularly in summer and autumn. When using ERA5 and ERA-I to force a 1-D sea ice model, the effects on ice growth are very small (cm) during the freezing period.
Sindre Fritzner, Rune Graversen, Kai H. Christensen, Philip Rostosky, and Keguang Wang
The Cryosphere, 13, 491–509, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-491-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-491-2019, 2019
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In this work, a coupled ocean and sea-ice ensemble-based assimilation system is used to assess the impact of different observations on the assimilation system. The focus of this study is on sea-ice observations, including the use of satellite observations of sea-ice concentration, sea-ice thickness and snow depth for assimilation. The study showed that assimilation of sea-ice thickness in addition to sea-ice concentration has a large positive impact on the coupled model.
Saleem Shalin, Annette Samuelsen, Anton Korosov, Nandini Menon, Björn C. Backeberg, and Lasse H. Pettersson
Biogeosciences, 15, 1395–1414, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-1395-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-1395-2018, 2018
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This work objectively classified the northern Arabian Sea into six ecological zones based on surface Chl a distribution patterns during winter. Distinct Chl a characteristics within each delineated zone show that this classification method is a good way of separating regions with different phytoplankton dynamics during winter. The study provides improved understanding of how environmental factors control the spatio-temporal variability of the marine Chl a concentration in the area during winter.
Petri Räisänen, Risto Makkonen, Alf Kirkevåg, and Jens B. Debernard
The Cryosphere, 11, 2919–2942, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2919-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2919-2017, 2017
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While snow grains are non-spherical, spheres are often assumed in radiation calculations. Here, we replace spherical snow grains with non-spherical snow grains in a climate model. This leads to a somewhat higher snow albedo (by 0.02–0.03), increased snow and sea ice cover, and a distinctly colder climate (by over 1 K in the global mean). It also impacts the radiative effects of aerosols in snow. Overall, this work highlights the important role of snow albedo parameterization for climate models.
A. Samuelsen, C. Hansen, and H. Wehde
Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 2187–2202, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-2187-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-2187-2015, 2015
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Biogeochemical models are increasingly used in forecasting systems. They provide parameter fields such as nutrients, chlorophyll and oxygen for scientific use and for marine management. This paper describes a model currently used for forecasting the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans on a weekly basis and the evaluation of this model against observations. The model provides reliable fields of nutrients, while the predicted phytoplankton fields are still connected with large uncertainties.
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Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 2359–2386, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2359-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2359-2024, 2024
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Ocean forecasting relies on the combination of numerical models and ocean observations through data assimilation (DA). Here we assess the performance of two DA systems in a dynamic western boundary current, the East Australian Current, across a common modelling and observational framework. We show that the more advanced, time-dependent method outperforms the time-independent method for forecast horizons of 5 d. This advocates the use of advanced methods for highly variable oceanic regions.
Ivan Hernandez, Leidy M. Castro-Rosero, Manuel Espino, and Jose M. Alsina Torrent
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 2221–2245, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2221-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2221-2024, 2024
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The LOCATE numerical model was developed to conduct Lagrangian simulations of the transport and dispersion of marine debris at coastal scales. High-resolution hydrodynamic data and a beaching module that used particle distance to the shore for land–water boundary detection were used on a realistic debris discharge scenario comparing hydrodynamic data at various resolutions. Coastal processes and complex geometric structures were resolved when using nested grids and distance-to-shore beaching.
Ngoc B. Trinh, Marine Herrmann, Caroline Ulses, Patrick Marsaleix, Thomas Duhaut, Thai To Duy, Claude Estournel, and R. Kipp Shearman
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1831–1867, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1831-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1831-2024, 2024
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A high-resolution model was built to study the South China Sea (SCS) water, heat, and salt budgets. Model performance is demonstrated by comparison with observations and simulations. Important discards are observed if calculating offline, instead of online, lateral inflows and outflows of water, heat, and salt. The SCS mainly receives water from the Luzon Strait and releases it through the Mindoro, Taiwan, and Karimata straits. SCS surface interocean water exchanges are driven by monsoon winds.
Louis Thiry, Long Li, Guillaume Roullet, and Etienne Mémin
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1749–1764, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1749-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1749-2024, 2024
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We present a new way of solving the quasi-geostrophic (QG) equations, a simple set of equations describing ocean dynamics. Our method is solely based on the numerical methods used to solve the equations and requires no parameter tuning. Moreover, it can handle non-rectangular geometries, opening the way to study QG equations on realistic domains. We release a PyTorch implementation to ease future machine-learning developments on top of the presented method.
Zheqi Shen, Yihao Chen, Xiaojing Li, and Xunshu Song
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1651–1665, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1651-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1651-2024, 2024
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Parameter estimation is the process that optimizes model parameters using observations, which could reduce model errors and improve forecasting. In this study, we conducted parameter estimation experiments using the CESM and the ensemble adjustment Kalman filter. The obtained initial conditions and parameters are used to perform ensemble forecast experiments for ENSO forecasting. The results revealed that parameter estimation could reduce analysis errors and improve ENSO forecast skills.
Ali Abdolali, Saeideh Banihashemi, Jose Henrique Alves, Aron Roland, Tyler J. Hesser, Mary Anderson Bryant, and Jane McKee Smith
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1023–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1023-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1023-2024, 2024
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This article presents an overview of the development and implementation of Great Lake Wave Unstructured (GLWUv2.0), including the core model and workflow design and development. The validation was conducted against in situ data for the re-forecasted duration for summer and wintertime (ice season). The article describes the limitations and challenges encountered in the operational environment and the path forward for the next generation of wave forecast systems in enclosed basins like the GL.
Qiang Wang, Qi Shu, Alexandra Bozec, Eric P. Chassignet, Pier Giuseppe Fogli, Baylor Fox-Kemper, Andy McC. Hogg, Doroteaciro Iovino, Andrew E. Kiss, Nikolay Koldunov, Julien Le Sommer, Yiwen Li, Pengfei Lin, Hailong Liu, Igor Polyakov, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Shizhu Wang, and Xiaobiao Xu
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 347–379, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-347-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-347-2024, 2024
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Increasing resolution improves model skills in simulating the Arctic Ocean, but other factors such as parameterizations and numerics are at least of the same importance for obtaining reliable simulations.
Andrew C. Ross, Charles A. Stock, Alistair Adcroft, Enrique Curchitser, Robert Hallberg, Matthew J. Harrison, Katherine Hedstrom, Niki Zadeh, Michael Alexander, Wenhao Chen, Elizabeth J. Drenkard, Hubert du Pontavice, Raphael Dussin, Fabian Gomez, Jasmin G. John, Dujuan Kang, Diane Lavoie, Laure Resplandy, Alizée Roobaert, Vincent Saba, Sang-Ik Shin, Samantha Siedlecki, and James Simkins
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6943–6985, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6943-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6943-2023, 2023
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We evaluate a model for northwest Atlantic Ocean dynamics and biogeochemistry that balances high resolution with computational economy by building on the new regional features in the MOM6 ocean model and COBALT biogeochemical model. We test the model's ability to simulate impactful historical variability and find that the model simulates the mean state and variability of most features well, which suggests the model can provide information to inform living-marine-resource applications.
Luca Arpaia, Christian Ferrarin, Marco Bajo, and Georg Umgiesser
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6899–6919, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6899-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6899-2023, 2023
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We propose a discrete multilayer shallow water model based on z-layers which, thanks to the insertion and removal of surface layers, can deal with an arbitrarily large tidal oscillation independently of the vertical resolution. The algorithm is based on a two-step procedure used in numerical simulations with moving boundaries (grid movement followed by a grid topology change, that is, the insertion/removal of surface layers), which avoids the appearance of very thin surface layers.
Lucille Barré, Frédéric Diaz, Thibaut Wagener, France Van Wambeke, Camille Mazoyer, Christophe Yohia, and Christel Pinazo
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6701–6739, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6701-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6701-2023, 2023
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While several studies have shown that mixotrophs play a crucial role in the carbon cycle, the impact of environmental forcings on their dynamics remains poorly investigated. Using a biogeochemical model that considers mixotrophs, we study the impact of light and nutrient concentration on the ecosystem composition in a highly dynamic Mediterranean coastal area: the Bay of Marseille. We show that mixotrophs cope better with oligotrophic conditions compared to strict auto- and heterotrophs.
Trygve Halsne, Kai Håkon Christensen, Gaute Hope, and Øyvind Breivik
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6515–6530, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6515-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6515-2023, 2023
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Surface waves that propagate in oceanic or coastal environments get influenced by their surroundings. Changes in the ambient current or the depth profile affect the wave propagation path, and the change in wave direction is called refraction. Some analytical solutions to the governing equations exist under ideal conditions, but for realistic situations, the equations must be solved numerically. Here we present such a numerical solver under an open-source license.
Jiangyu Li, Shaoqing Zhang, Qingxiang Liu, Xiaolin Yu, and Zhiwei Zhang
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6393–6412, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6393-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6393-2023, 2023
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Ocean surface waves play an important role in the air–sea interface but are rarely activated in high-resolution Earth system simulations due to their expensive computational costs. To alleviate this situation, this paper designs a new wave modeling framework with a multiscale grid system. Evaluations of a series of numerical experiments show that it has good feasibility and applicability in the WAVEWATCH III model, WW3, and can achieve the goals of efficient and high-precision wave simulation.
Doroteaciro Iovino, Pier Giuseppe Fogli, and Simona Masina
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6127–6159, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6127-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6127-2023, 2023
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This paper describes the model performance of three global ocean–sea ice configurations, from non-eddying (1°) to eddy-rich (1/16°) resolutions. Model simulations are obtained following the Ocean Model Intercomparison Project phase 2 (OMIP2) protocol. We compare key global climate variables across the three models and against observations, emphasizing the relative advantages and disadvantages of running forced ocean–sea ice models at higher resolution.
Sylvain Cailleau, Laurent Bessières, Léonel Chiendje, Flavie Dubost, Guillaume Reffray, Jean-Michel Lellouche, Simon van Gennip, Charly Régnier, Marie Drevillon, Marc Tressol, Matthieu Clavier, Julien Temple-Boyer, and Léo Berline
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2023-183, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2023-183, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for GMD
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In order to improve the Sargassum drift forecasting in the Caribbean area, drift models can be forced by higher resolution ocean currents. To this goal a 3-km resolution regional ocean model has been developed. its assessment is presented with a particular focus on the reproduction of fine structures representing key features of the Caribbean region dynamics and Sargassum transport. The simulated propagation of a North Brazil Current eddy and its dissipation were found to be quite realistic.
Johannes Röhrs, Yvonne Gusdal, Edel S. U. Rikardsen, Marina Durán Moro, Jostein Brændshøi, Nils Melsom Kristensen, Sindre Fritzner, Keguang Wang, Ann Kristin Sperrevik, Martina Idžanović, Thomas Lavergne, Jens Boldingh Debernard, and Kai H. Christensen
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5401–5426, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5401-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5401-2023, 2023
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A model to predict ocean currents, temperature, and sea ice is presented, covering the Barents Sea and northern Norway. To quantify forecast uncertainties, the model calculates ensemble forecasts with 24 realizations of ocean and ice conditions. Observations from satellites, buoys, and ships are ingested by the model. The model forecasts are compared with observations, and we show that the ocean model has skill in predicting sea surface temperatures.
Jin-Song von Storch, Eileen Hertwig, Veit Lüschow, Nils Brüggemann, Helmuth Haak, Peter Korn, and Vikram Singh
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5179–5196, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5179-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5179-2023, 2023
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The new ocean general circulation model ICON-O is developed for running experiments at kilometer scales and beyond. One targeted application is to simulate internal tides crucial for ocean mixing. To ensure their realism, which is difficult to assess, we evaluate the barotropic tides that generate internal tides. We show that ICON-O is able to realistically simulate the major aspects of the observed barotropic tides and discuss the aspects that impact the quality of the simulated tides.
Xiaoyu Fan, Baylor Fox-Kemper, Nobuhiro Suzuki, Qing Li, Patrick Marchesiello, Francis Auclair, Peter P. Sullivan, and Paul S. Hall
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1657, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-1657, 2023
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Simulations of the oceanic turbulent boundary layer using the nonhydrostatic CROCO ROMS and NCAR-LES models are compared. CROCO and the NCAR-LES are similarly accurate, but CROCO’s additional features (e.g., nesting and realism) and its compressible turbulence formulation carry additional costs.
Bror F. Jönsson, Christopher L. Follett, Jacob Bien, Stephanie Dutkiewicz, Sangwon Hyun, Gemma Kulk, Gael L. Forget, Christian Müller, Marie-Fanny Racault, Christopher N. Hill, Thomas Jackson, and Shubha Sathyendranath
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 4639–4657, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-4639-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-4639-2023, 2023
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While biogeochemical models and satellite-derived ocean color data provide unprecedented information, it is problematic to compare them. Here, we present a new approach based on comparing probability density distributions of model and satellite properties to assess model skills. We also introduce Earth mover's distances as a novel and powerful metric to quantify the misfit between models and observations. We find that how 3D chlorophyll fields are aggregated can be a significant source of error.
Rafael Santana, Helen Macdonald, Joanne O'Callaghan, Brian Powell, Sarah Wakes, and Sutara H. Suanda
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3675–3698, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3675-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3675-2023, 2023
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We show the importance of assimilating subsurface temperature and velocity data in a model of the East Auckland Current. Assimilation of velocity increased the representation of large oceanic vortexes. Assimilation of temperature is needed to correctly simulate temperatures around 100 m depth, which is the most difficult region to simulate in ocean models. Our simulations showed improved results in comparison to the US Navy global model and highlight the importance of regional models.
David Byrne, Jeff Polton, Enda O'Dea, and Joanne Williams
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3749–3764, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3749-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3749-2023, 2023
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Validation is a crucial step during the development of models for ocean simulation. The purpose of validation is to assess how accurate a model is. It is most commonly done by comparing output from a model to actual observations. In this paper, we introduce and demonstrate usage of the COAsT Python package to standardise the validation process for physical ocean models. We also discuss our five guiding principles for standardised validation.
Katherine Hutchinson, Julie Deshayes, Christian Éthé, Clément Rousset, Casimir de Lavergne, Martin Vancoppenolle, Nicolas C. Jourdain, and Pierre Mathiot
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3629–3650, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3629-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3629-2023, 2023
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Bottom Water constitutes the lower half of the ocean’s overturning system and is primarily formed in the Weddell and Ross Sea in the Antarctic due to interactions between the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice and ice shelves. Here we use a global ocean 1° resolution model with explicit representation of the three large ice shelves important for the formation of the parent waters of Bottom Water. We find doing so reduces salt biases, improves water mass realism and gives realistic ice shelf melt rates.
Daniele Bianchi, Daniel McCoy, and Simon Yang
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3581–3609, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3581-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3581-2023, 2023
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We present NitrOMZ, a new model of the oceanic nitrogen cycle that simulates chemical transformations within oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). We describe the model formulation and its implementation in a one-dimensional representation of the water column before evaluating its ability to reproduce observations in the eastern tropical South Pacific. We conclude by describing the model sensitivity to parameter choices and environmental factors and its application to nitrogen cycling in the ocean.
Gaetano Porcile, Anne-Claire Bennis, Martial Boutet, Sophie Le Bot, Franck Dumas, and Swen Jullien
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-715, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2023-715, 2023
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Here a new method of modeling the interaction between ocean currents and waves is presented. We developed an advanced coupling of two models, one for ocean circulation and one for waves. In previous couplings, some wave-related calculations were based on simplified assumptions. Our method uses more complex calculations to better represent wave-current interactions. We tested it in a macro-tidal coastal area and found that it significantly improves the model accuracy, especially during storms.
Rui Sun, Alison Cobb, Ana B. Villas Bôas, Sabique Langodan, Aneesh C. Subramanian, Matthew R. Mazloff, Bruce D. Cornuelle, Arthur J. Miller, Raju Pathak, and Ibrahim Hoteit
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3435–3458, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3435-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3435-2023, 2023
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In this work, we integrated the WAVEWATCH III model into the regional coupled model SKRIPS. We then performed a case study using the newly implemented model to study Tropical Cyclone Mekunu, which occurred in the Arabian Sea. We found that the coupled model better simulates the cyclone than the uncoupled model, but the impact of waves on the cyclone is not significant. However, the waves change the sea surface temperature and mixed layer, especially in the cold waves produced due to the cyclone.
Pengcheng Wang and Natacha B. Bernier
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3335–3354, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3335-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3335-2023, 2023
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Effects of sea ice are typically neglected in operational flood forecast systems. In this work, we capture these effects via the addition of a parameterized ice–ocean stress. The parameterization takes advantage of forecast fields from an advanced ice–ocean model and features a novel, consistent representation of the tidal relative ice–ocean velocity. The new parameterization leads to improved forecasts of tides and storm surges in polar regions. Associated physical processes are discussed.
Yue Xu and Xiping Yu
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2811–2831, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2811-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2811-2023, 2023
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An accurate description of the wind energy input into ocean waves is crucial to ocean wave modeling, and a physics-based consideration of the effect of wave breaking is absolutely necessary to obtain such an accurate description, particularly under extreme conditions. This study evaluates the performance of a recently improved formula, taking into account not only the effect of breaking but also the effect of airflow separation on the leeside of steep wave crests in a reasonably consistent way.
Yankun Gong, Xueen Chen, Jiexin Xu, Jieshuo Xie, Zhiwu Chen, Yinghui He, and Shuqun Cai
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2851–2871, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2851-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2851-2023, 2023
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Internal solitary waves (ISWs) play crucial roles in mass transport and ocean mixing in the northern South China Sea. Massive numerical investigations have been conducted in this region, but there was no systematic evaluation of a three-dimensional model about precisely simulating ISWs. Here, an ISW forecasting model is employed to evaluate the roles of resolution, tidal forcing and stratification in accurately reproducing wave properties via comparison to field and remote-sensing observations.
Jilian Xiong and Parker MacCready
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2023-45, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2023-45, 2023
Revised manuscript accepted for GMD
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A new offline particle tracking model, Tracker, was introduced to work with the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS). Its performance was compared with four other particle tracking models and passive dye, which span a representative range of tracking algorithms. All tracking models perform similarly, especially for the first day. The comparison of multiple tracking codes in the same circulation model establishes confidence in all, and allows comparison of performance and ease of use.
Johannes Bieser, David J. Amptmeijer, Ute Daewel, Joachim Kuss, Anne L. Soerensen, and Corinna Schrum
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2649–2688, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2649-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2649-2023, 2023
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MERCY is a 3D model to study mercury (Hg) cycling in the ocean. Hg is a highly harmful pollutant regulated by the UN Minamata Convention on Mercury due to widespread human emissions. These emissions eventually reach the oceans, where Hg transforms into the even more toxic and bioaccumulative pollutant methylmercury. MERCY predicts the fate of Hg in the ocean and its buildup in the food chain. It is the first model to consider Hg accumulation in fish, a major source of Hg exposure for humans.
Y. Joseph Zhang, Tomas Fernandez-Montblanc, William Pringle, Hao-Cheng Yu, Linlin Cui, and Saeed Moghimi
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2565–2581, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2565-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2565-2023, 2023
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Simulating global ocean from deep basins to coastal areas is a daunting task but is important for disaster mitigation efforts. We present a new 3D global ocean model on flexible mesh to study both tidal and nontidal processes and total water prediction. We demonstrate the potential for
seamlesssimulation, on a single mesh, from the global ocean to a few estuaries along the US West Coast. The model can serve as the backbone of a global tide surge and compound flooding forecasting framework.
Qi Shu, Qiang Wang, Chuncheng Guo, Zhenya Song, Shizhu Wang, Yan He, and Fangli Qiao
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2539–2563, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2539-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2539-2023, 2023
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Ocean models are often used for scientific studies on the Arctic Ocean. Here the Arctic Ocean simulations by state-of-the-art global ocean–sea-ice models participating in the Ocean Model Intercomparison Project (OMIP) were evaluated. The simulations on Arctic Ocean hydrography, freshwater content, stratification, sea surface height, and gateway transports were assessed and the common biases were detected. The simulations forced by different atmospheric forcing were also evaluated.
Manuel Aghito, Loris Calgaro, Knut-Frode Dagestad, Christian Ferrarin, Antonio Marcomini, Øyvind Breivik, and Lars Robert Hole
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2477–2494, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2477-2023, 2023
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The newly developed ChemicalDrift model can simulate the transport and fate of chemicals in the ocean and in coastal regions. The model combines ocean physics, including transport due to currents, turbulence due to surface winds and the sinking of particles to the sea floor, with ocean chemistry, such as the partitioning, the degradation and the evaporation of chemicals. The model will be utilized for risk assessment of ocean and sea-floor contamination from pollutants emitted from shipping.
Nieves G. Valiente, Andrew Saulter, Breogan Gomez, Christopher Bunney, Jian-Guo Li, Tamzin Palmer, and Christine Pequignet
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2515–2538, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2515-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2515-2023, 2023
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We document the Met Office operational global and regional wave models which provide wave forecasts up to 7 d ahead. Our models present coarser resolution offshore to higher resolution near the coastline. The increased resolution led to replication of the extremes but to some overestimation during modal conditions. If currents are included, wave directions and long period swells near the coast are significantly improved. New developments focus on the optimisation of the models with resolution.
Maxime Beauchamp, Quentin Febvre, Hugo Georgenthum, and Ronan Fablet
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 2119–2147, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2119-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-2119-2023, 2023
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4DVarNet is a learning-based method based on traditional data assimilation (DA). This new class of algorithms can be used to provide efficient reconstructions of a dynamical system based on single observations. We provide a 4DVarNet application to sea surface height reconstructions based on nadir and future Surface Water and Ocean and Topography data. It outperforms other methods, from optimal interpolation to sophisticated DA algorithms. This work is part of on-going AI Chair Oceanix projects.
Bin Xiao, Fangli Qiao, Qi Shu, Xunqiang Yin, Guansuo Wang, and Shihong Wang
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1755–1777, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1755-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1755-2023, 2023
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A new global surface-wave–tide–circulation coupled ocean model (FIO-COM32) with a resolution of 1/32° × 1/32° is developed and validated. Both the promotion of the horizontal resolution and included physical processes are shown to be important contributors to the significant improvements in FIO-COM32 simulations. It is time to merge these separated model components (surface waves, tidal currents and ocean circulation) and start a new generation of ocean model development.
Jeff Polton, James Harle, Jason Holt, Anna Katavouta, Dale Partridge, Jenny Jardine, Sarah Wakelin, Julia Rulent, Anthony Wise, Katherine Hutchinson, David Byrne, Diego Bruciaferri, Enda O'Dea, Michela De Dominicis, Pierre Mathiot, Andrew Coward, Andrew Yool, Julien Palmiéri, Gennadi Lessin, Claudia Gabriela Mayorga-Adame, Valérie Le Guennec, Alex Arnold, and Clément Rousset
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1481–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1481-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1481-2023, 2023
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The aim is to increase the capacity of the modelling community to respond to societally important questions that require ocean modelling. The concept of reproducibility for regional ocean modelling is developed: advocating methods for reproducible workflows and standardised methods of assessment. Then, targeting the NEMO framework, we give practical advice and worked examples, highlighting key considerations that will the expedite development cycle and upskill the user community.
Nairita Pal, Kristin N. Barton, Mark R. Petersen, Steven R. Brus, Darren Engwirda, Brian K. Arbic, Andrew F. Roberts, Joannes J. Westerink, and Damrongsak Wirasaet
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1297–1314, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1297-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1297-2023, 2023
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Understanding tides is essential to accurately predict ocean currents. Over the next several decades coastal processes such as flooding and erosion will be severely impacted due to climate change. Tides affect currents along the coastal regions the most. In this paper we show the results of implementing tides in a global ocean model known as MPAS–Ocean. We also show how Antarctic ice shelf cavities affect global tides. Our work points towards future research with tide–ice interactions.
Sébastien Petton, Valérie Garnier, Matthieu Caillaud, Laurent Debreu, and Franck Dumas
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1191–1211, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1191-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1191-2023, 2023
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The nesting AGRIF library is implemented in the MARS3D hydrodynamic model, a semi-implicit, free-surface numerical model which uses a time scheme as an alternating-direction implicit (ADI) algorithm. Two applications at the regional and coastal scale are introduced. We compare the two-nesting approach to the classic offline one-way approach, based on an in situ dataset. This method is an efficient means to significantly improve the physical hydrodynamics and unravel ecological challenges.
Noam S. Vogt-Vincent and Helen L. Johnson
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 1163–1178, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1163-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-1163-2023, 2023
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Ocean currents transport things over large distances across the ocean surface. Predicting this transport is key for tackling many environmental problems, such as marine plastic pollution and coral reef resilience. However, doing this requires a good understanding ocean currents, which is currently lacking. Here, we present and validate state-of-the-art simulations for surface currents in the southwestern Indian Ocean, which will support future marine dispersal studies across this region.
Pengyang Song, Dmitry Sidorenko, Patrick Scholz, Maik Thomas, and Gerrit Lohmann
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 383–405, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-383-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-383-2023, 2023
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Tides have essential effects on the ocean and climate. Most previous research applies parameterised tidal mixing to discuss their effects in models. By comparing the effect of a tidal mixing parameterisation and tidal forcing on the ocean state, we assess the advantages and disadvantages of the two methods. Our results show that tidal mixing in the North Pacific Ocean strongly affects the global thermohaline circulation. We also list some effects that are not considered in the parameterisation.
Marko Rus, Anja Fettich, Matej Kristan, and Matjaž Ličer
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 271–288, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-271-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-271-2023, 2023
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We propose a new fast and reliable deep-learning architecture HIDRA2 for sea level and storm surge modeling. HIDRA2 features new feature encoders and a fusion-regression block. We test HIDRA2 on Adriatic storm surges, which depend on an interaction between tides and seiches. We demonstrate that HIDRA2 learns to effectively mimic the timing and amplitude of Adriatic seiches. This is essential for reliable HIDRA2 predictions of total storm surge sea levels.
Joao Marcos Azevedo Correia de Souza, Sutara H. Suanda, Phellipe P. Couto, Robert O. Smith, Colette Kerry, and Moninya Roughan
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 211–231, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-211-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-211-2023, 2023
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The current paper describes the configuration and evaluation of the Moana Ocean Hindcast, a > 25-year simulation of the ocean state around New Zealand using the Regional Ocean Modeling System v3.9. This is the first open-access, long-term, continuous, realistic ocean simulation for this region and provides information for improving the understanding of the ocean processes that affect the New Zealand exclusive economic zone.
Hao Huang, Pengyang Song, Shi Qiu, Jiaqi Guo, and Xueen Chen
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 109–133, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-109-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-109-2023, 2023
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The Oceanic Regional Circulation and Tide Model (ORCTM) is developed to reproduce internal solitary wave dynamics. The three-dimensional nonlinear momentum equations are involved with the nonhydrostatic pressure obtained via solving the Poisson equation. The validation experimental results agree with the internal wave theories and observations, demonstrating that the ORCTM can successfully describe the life cycle of nonlinear internal solitary waves under different oceanic environments.
David E. Gwyther, Shane R. Keating, Colette Kerry, and Moninya Roughan
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 157–178, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-157-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-157-2023, 2023
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Ocean eddies are important for weather, climate, biology, navigation, and search and rescue. Since eddies change rapidly, models that incorporate or assimilate observations are required to produce accurate eddy timings and locations, yet the model accuracy is rarely assessed below the surface. We use a unique type of ocean model experiment to assess three-dimensional eddy structure in the East Australian Current and explore two pathways in which this subsurface structure is being degraded.
Shun Ohishi, Takemasa Miyoshi, and Misako Kachi
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 9057–9073, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-9057-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-9057-2022, 2022
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An adaptive observation error inflation (AOEI) method was proposed for atmospheric data assimilation to mitigate erroneous analysis updates caused by large observation-minus-forecast differences for satellite brightness temperature around clear- and cloudy-sky boundaries. This study implemented the AOEI with an ocean data assimilation system, leading to an improvement of analysis accuracy and dynamical balance around the frontal regions with large meridional temperature differences.
Diego Bruciaferri, Marina Tonani, Isabella Ascione, Fahad Al Senafi, Enda O'Dea, Helene T. Hewitt, and Andrew Saulter
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 8705–8730, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8705-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8705-2022, 2022
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More accurate predictions of the Gulf's ocean dynamics are needed. We investigate the impact on the predictive skills of a numerical shelf sea model of the Gulf after changing a few key aspects. Increasing the lateral and vertical resolution and optimising the vertical coordinate system to best represent the leading physical processes at stake significantly improve the accuracy of the simulated dynamics. Additional work may be needed to get real benefit from using a more realistic bathymetry.
Matthias Gröger, Manja Placke, H. E. Markus Meier, Florian Börgel, Sandra-Esther Brunnabend, Cyril Dutheil, Ulf Gräwe, Magnus Hieronymus, Thomas Neumann, Hagen Radtke, Semjon Schimanke, Jian Su, and Germo Väli
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 8613–8638, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8613-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8613-2022, 2022
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Comparisons of oceanographic climate data from different models often suffer from different model setups, forcing fields, and output of variables. This paper provides a protocol to harmonize these elements to set up multidecadal simulations for the Baltic Sea, a marginal sea in Europe. First results are shown from six different model simulations from four different model platforms. Topical studies for upwelling, marine heat waves, and stratification are also assessed.
Shun Ohishi, Tsutomu Hihara, Hidenori Aiki, Joji Ishizaka, Yasumasa Miyazawa, Misako Kachi, and Takemasa Miyoshi
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 8395–8410, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8395-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8395-2022, 2022
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We develop an ensemble-Kalman-filter-based regional ocean data assimilation system in which satellite and in situ observations are assimilated at a daily frequency. We find the best setting for dynamical balance and accuracy based on sensitivity experiments focused on how to inflate the ensemble spread and how to apply the analysis update to the model evolution. This study has a broader impact on more general data assimilation systems in which the initial shocks are a significant issue.
Hector S. Torres, Patrice Klein, Jinbo Wang, Alexander Wineteer, Bo Qiu, Andrew F. Thompson, Lionel Renault, Ernesto Rodriguez, Dimitris Menemenlis, Andrea Molod, Christopher N. Hill, Ehud Strobach, Hong Zhang, Mar Flexas, and Dragana Perkovic-Martin
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 8041–8058, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8041-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8041-2022, 2022
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Wind work at the air-sea interface is the scalar product of winds and currents and is the transfer of kinetic energy between the ocean and the atmosphere. Using a new global coupled ocean-atmosphere simulation performed at kilometer resolution, we show that all scales of winds and currents impact the ocean dynamics at spatial and temporal scales. The consequential interplay of surface winds and currents in the numerical simulation motivates the need for a winds and currents satellite mission.
Zhanpeng Zhuang, Quanan Zheng, Yongzeng Yang, Zhenya Song, Yeli Yuan, Chaojie Zhou, Xinhua Zhao, Ting Zhang, and Jing Xie
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 7221–7241, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-7221-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-7221-2022, 2022
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We evaluate the impacts of surface waves and internal tides on the upper-ocean mixing in the Indian Ocean. The surface-wave-generated turbulent mixing is dominant if depth is < 30 m, while the internal-tide-induced mixing is larger than surface waves in the ocean interior from 40
to 130 m. The simulated thermal structure, mixed layer depth and surface current are all improved when the mixing schemes are jointly incorporated into the ocean model because of the strengthened vertical mixing.
Cited articles
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Short summary
Sea ice models are often implemented for very large domains beyond the regions of sea ice formation, such as the whole Arctic or all of Antarctica. In this study, we implement changes in the Los Alamos Sea Ice Model, allowing it to be implemented for relatively small regions within the Arctic or Antarctica and yet considering the presence and influence of sea ice outside the represented areas. Such regional implementations are important when spatially detailed results are required.
Sea ice models are often implemented for very large domains beyond the regions of sea ice...
