Articles | Volume 18, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-141-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-141-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Simulation of the heat mitigation potential of unsealing measures in cities by parameterizing grass grid pavers for urban microclimate modelling with ENVI-met (V5)
Nils Eingrüber
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute of Geography, Hydrogeography and climatology research group, University of Cologne, 50923, Cologne, Germany
Alina Domm
Institute of Geography, Hydrogeography and climatology research group, University of Cologne, 50923, Cologne, Germany
Wolfgang Korres
Institute of Geography, Hydrogeography and climatology research group, University of Cologne, 50923, Cologne, Germany
Karl Schneider
Institute of Geography, Hydrogeography and climatology research group, University of Cologne, 50923, Cologne, Germany
Related authors
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, Ulrich Löhnert, and Karl Schneider
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 14, 13–26, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-14-13-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-14-13-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In the context of climate change adaptation of cities to mitigate heat stress, citizen participation is a promising approach. A densely distributed measurement network of 59 quality-controlled meteorological low-cost sensors was set up in an urban study area in Pune for continuous data collection by engaging local communities. Analyses of measurements show the suitability of the monitoring network for scientific modelling applications and identify a high active interest of involved citizens.
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, Ulrich Löhnert, and Karl Schneider
Adv. Sci. Res., 20, 65–71, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-20-65-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-20-65-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Sensitivity analyses for wind direction effects upon an ENVI-met microclimate model were performed for a heterogeneous urban study area. Significant temperature differences were found when forcing the model with constant N/E/S/W wind direction data. Best model performance was observed using measured wind direction forcing data. The results demonstrate that cooling effects of park areas are largely directional which is important for urban planning and design of climate change adaptation measures.
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, and Karl Schneider
Adv. Sci. Res., 19, 81–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-19-81-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-19-81-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Cities are particularly affected by climate change. Adaptation strategies require data, models and scenario analyses. This paper characterizes the urban microclimate of a 16 ha study area in Cologne based on a network of 33 calibrated and validated sensors. Using statistical analyses, tests and pairwise comparisons, significant microclimatic differences were identified between a park, courtyard, avenue and narrow street. The data will be used in future to validate an ENVI-met microclimate model.
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, Ulrich Löhnert, and Karl Schneider
J. Sens. Sens. Syst., 14, 13–26, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-14-13-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/jsss-14-13-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In the context of climate change adaptation of cities to mitigate heat stress, citizen participation is a promising approach. A densely distributed measurement network of 59 quality-controlled meteorological low-cost sensors was set up in an urban study area in Pune for continuous data collection by engaging local communities. Analyses of measurements show the suitability of the monitoring network for scientific modelling applications and identify a high active interest of involved citizens.
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, Ulrich Löhnert, and Karl Schneider
Adv. Sci. Res., 20, 65–71, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-20-65-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-20-65-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Sensitivity analyses for wind direction effects upon an ENVI-met microclimate model were performed for a heterogeneous urban study area. Significant temperature differences were found when forcing the model with constant N/E/S/W wind direction data. Best model performance was observed using measured wind direction forcing data. The results demonstrate that cooling effects of park areas are largely directional which is important for urban planning and design of climate change adaptation measures.
Nils Eingrüber, Wolfgang Korres, and Karl Schneider
Adv. Sci. Res., 19, 81–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-19-81-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-19-81-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Cities are particularly affected by climate change. Adaptation strategies require data, models and scenario analyses. This paper characterizes the urban microclimate of a 16 ha study area in Cologne based on a network of 33 calibrated and validated sensors. Using statistical analyses, tests and pairwise comparisons, significant microclimatic differences were identified between a park, courtyard, avenue and narrow street. The data will be used in future to validate an ENVI-met microclimate model.
Cited articles
Anders, J., Schubert, S., Sauter, T., Tunn, S., Schneider, C., and Salim, M.: Modelling the impact of an urban development project on microclimate and outdoor thermal comfort in a mid-latitude city, Energ. Buildings, 296, 113324, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113324, 2023.
Balany, F., Ng, A. W. M., Muttil, N., Muthukumaran, S., and Wong, M. S.: Green Infrastructure as an Urban Heat Island Mitigation Strategy – A Review, Water, 12, 3577, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123577, 2020.
Battista, G., de Lieto Vollaro, E., Evangelisti, L., and de Lieto Vollaro, R.: Urban Overheating Mitigation Strategies Opportunities: A Case Study of a Square in Rome (Italy), Sustainability, 14, 16939, https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416939, 2022.
Battisti, A., Laureti, F., Zinzi, M., and Volpicelli, G.: Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Roofs and Pavements: A Case Study at Sapienza University Campus, Sustainability, 10, 3788, https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103788, 2018.
Bean, E. Z., Hunt, W. F., and Bidelspach, D. A.: Evaluation of Four Permeable Pavement Sites in Eastern North Carolina for Runoff Reduction and Water Quality Impacts, J. Irrig. Drain. E., 133, 583–592, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:6(583), 2007.
Böttcher, M.: Selected climate mitigation and adaptation measures and their impact on the climate of the region of Hamburg, Doctoral dissertation, Staats-und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky, 2017.
Bröde, P., Fiala, D., Blazejczyl, K., Holmer, I., Jendritzky, G., Kampmann, B., Tinz, B., and Havenith, G.: Deriving the operational procedure for the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI), Int. J. Biometeorol., 56, 481–494, 2011.
Bruse, M., Simon, H. and Sinsel, T.: ENVI-met 5.0: updated model overview, University of Bochum, http://www.envi-met.com (last access: 30 April 2024), 2022.
Das, B. M.: Hydraulic conductivity, in: Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th edn., Cengage Learning, Stamford, ISBN-13 978-0-495-41130-7, 2010.
Del Serrone, G., Peluso, P., and Moretti, L.: Evaluation of Microclimate Benefits Due to Cool Pavements and Green Infrastructures on Urban Heat Islands, Atmosphere, 13, 1586, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13101586, 2022.
Demuzere, M., Kittner, J., Martilli, A., Mills, G., Moede, C., Stewart, I. D., van Vliet, J., and Bechtel, B.: A global map of local climate zones to support earth system modelling and urban-scale environmental science, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3835–3873, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3835-2022, 2022.
Eijkelkamp: 09.04 Doppelring-Infiltrometer Gebrauchsanweisung, Eijkelkamp, Giesbeek, https://geotechnik-shop.de/WebRoot/Store22/Shops/48ba4854-b193-4bce-af16-f28523b06652/MediaGallery/Gebrauchsanweisungen/Doppel-Ringinfiltrometer.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2012.
Eingrüber, N. and Korres, W.: Climate change simulation and trend analysis of extreme precipitation and floods in the mesoscale Rur catchment in western Germany until 2099 using Statistical Downscaling Model (SDSM) and the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT model), Sci. Total Environ., 838P1, 155775, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155775, 2022.
Eingrüber, N., Korres, W., and Schneider, K.: Pathways for climate change adaptation in urban areas – first results from field measurements and ENVI-met modeling, EMS Annual Meeting 2021, online, 6–10 September 2021, EMS2021-374, https://doi.org/10.5194/ems2021-374, 2021.
Eingrüber, N., Korres, W., and Schneider, K.: Microclimatic field measurements to support microclimatological modelling with ENVI-met for an urban study area in Cologne, Adv. Sci. Res., 19, 81–90, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-19-81-2022, 2022a.
Eingrüber, N., Schneider, K., Korres, W., and Löhnert, U.: Sensitivity analyses and validation of an ENVI-met microclimate model for a greened urban study area in Cologne Südstadt under various typical weather conditions, EMS Annual Meeting 2022, Bonn, Germany, 5–9 September 2022, EMS2022-42, https://doi.org/10.5194/ems2022-42, 2022b.
Eingrüber, N., Korres, W., Löhnert, U., and Schneider, K.: Investigation of the ENVI-met model sensitivity to different wind direction forcing data in a heterogeneous urban environment, Adv. Sci. Res., 20, 65–71, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-20-65-2023, 2023a.
Eingrüber, N., Krekeler, C., Korres, W., Löhnert, U., and Schneider, K.: High-Resolution Microclimate Modelling to Evaluate Urban Heat Mitigation Potentials of Rainfed Climate Change Adaptation Measures on Buildings under Various Climatic Conditions, AGU Fall Meeting 2023, San Francisco, CA, USA, 11–15 December 2023, H23V-1850, https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.171052572.20758573/v1, 2023b.
Eingrüber, N., Schneider, K., and Korres, W.: Evaluation of microclimatic variations and adaptation effects in a central European city during the most excessive heat wave in summer 2022 by ENVI-met modelling, EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 24–28 April 2023, EGU23-11806, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-11806, 2023c.
Eingrüber, N., Berg, P., Korres, W., Löhnert, U., and Schneider, K: Parameterization and Validation of a High-Resolution Microclimate Model to Identify Temperature Patterns in a Climate Change Adapted Urban High-Density Area, available at SSRN, 4912045, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4912045, 2024a.
Eingrüber, N., Domm, A., Korres, W., and Schneider, K.: Parameterization of grass grid pavers for urban microclimate modelling to simulate the heat mitigation potential of unsealing measures in cities (1.1), Zenodo [code and data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10966370, 2024b.
Eingrüber, N., Korres, W., and Schneider, K.: Comparison of heat mitigation effects of blue roofs and green roofs on building wall temperature and thermal outdoor comfort based on scenario analyses using 3D microclimate modelling for a dense urban district , EGU General Assembly 2024, Vienna, Austria, 14–19 April 2024, EGU24-9967, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-9967, 2024c.
Eingrüber, N., Schneider, K., Nehren, U., and Dlugoß, V.: Climate change adaptation through citizen participation: Simulation of the effect of willingness to act on the heat mitigation potential in urban neighborhoods with different social milieu composition , EMS Annual Meeting 2024, Barcelona, Spain, 1–6 September 2024, EMS2024-547, https://doi.org/10.5194/ems2024-547, 2024d.
ENVI-met GmbH: ENVI_MET Software Versions, https://envi-met.info/doku.php?id=files:downloadv4 (last access: 30 April 2024), 2023.
Eyring, V., Gilette, N. P., Achuta Rao, K. M., Barimalala, R., Barreiro Parrillo, M., Bellouin, N., Cassou, C., Durack, P. J., Kosaka, Y., McGregor, S., Min, S., Morgenstern, O., and Sun, Y.: Human Influence on the Climate System, in: Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, 423–552, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.005, 2021.
Fini, A., Frangi, P., Mori, J., Donzelli, D., and Ferrini, F.: Nature based solutions to mitigate soil sealing in urban areas: Results from a 4-year study comparing permeable, porous, and impermeable pavements, Environ. Res., 156, 443–454, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.03.032, 2017.
Freeze, A. and Cherry, J.: Groundwater, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Jersey, ISBN-13 9780133653120, 1979.
Gui, J., Phelan, P. E., Kaloush, K. E., and Golden, J. S.: Impact of Pavement Thermophysical Properties on Surface Temperatures, J. Mater. Civil Eng., 19, 683–690, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007)19:8(683), 2007.
Hoffmann, C. and Geissler, A.: Baumaterialien für Städte im Klimawandel Materialkatalog mit Empfehlungen, Bundesamt für Wohnungswesen, Basel, https://www.bwo.admin.ch/bwo/de/home/wie-wir-wohnen/umwelt/publikationen-bwo/baumaterialien.html (last access: 30 April 2024), 2022.
Höppe, P.: The physiological equivalent temperature – a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment, Int. J. Biometeorol., 43, 71–75, 1999.
Huang, J.-M. and Chen, L.-C.: A Numerical Study on Mitigation Strategies of Urban Heat Islands in a Tropical Megacity: A Case Study in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan, Sustainability, 12, 3952, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12103952, 2020.
Hunt, W. F. and Collins, K. A.: Permeable Pavement: Research Update and Design Implications, Urban Waterways, North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, https://nacto.org/docs/usdg/urban_waterways_permeable_pavement_hunt.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2008.
ICPI: Tech Spec 8, Concrete Grid Pavements, Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI), https://www.orco.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ICPI_Tech_Spec_8_Feb_20.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2020.
Jia, S. and Wang, Y.: Effect of heat mitigation strategies on thermal environment, thermal comfort, and walkability: A case study in Hong Kong, Build. Environ., 201, 107988, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107988, 2021.
Kleerekoper, L., van Esch, M., and Salcedo, T. B.: How to make a city climate-proof, addressing the urban heat island effect, Resour. Conserv. Recy., 64, 30–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.004, 2012.
Kousis, I. and Pisello, A. L.: Evaluating the performance of cool pavements for urban heat island mitigation under realistic conditions: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Urb. Clim., 49, 101470, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101470, 2023.
LANUV: Klimawandelgerechte Metropole Köln. Abschlussbericht, Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz Nordrhein-Westfalen, Recklinghausen, https://www.lanuv.nrw.de/fileadmin/lanuvpubl/3_fachberichte/30050.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2013.
Lee, H., Mayer, H., and Chen, L.: Contribution of trees and grasslands to the mitigation of human heat stress in a residential district of Freiburg, Southwest Germany, Landscape Urban Plan., 148, 37–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.12.004, 2016.
Lin, J. D., Hsu, C. Y., Citraningrum, A., and Adhitana, P.: The Impact of Different Types of Permeable Pavement Utilization on Air Temperature above the Pavement, Adv, Mater, Res,, 723, 678–685, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.723.678, 2013.
Manteghi, G. and Tasneem, M.: Evaporative Pavements as an Urban Heat Island (UHI) Mitigation Strategy: A Review, International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 11, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.17, 2020.
Maronga, B., Banzhaf, S., Burmeister, C., Esch, T., Forkel, R., Fröhlich, D., Fuka, V., Gehrke, K. F., Geletič, J., Giersch, S., Gronemeier, T., Groß, G., Heldens, W., Hellsten, A., Hoffmann, F., Inagaki, A., Kadasch, E., Kanani-Sühring, F., Ketelsen, K., Khan, B. A., Knigge, C., Knoop, H., Krč, P., Kurppa, M., Maamari, H., Matzarakis, A., Mauder, M., Pallasch, M., Pavlik, D., Pfafferott, J., Resler, J., Rissmann, S., Russo, E., Salim, M., Schrempf, M., Schwenkel, J., Seckmeyer, G., Schubert, S., Sühring, M., von Tils, R., Vollmer, L., Ward, S., Witha, B., Wurps, H., Zeidler, J., and Raasch, S.: Overview of the PALM model system 6.0, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 1335–1372, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1335-2020, 2020.
Middel, A., Al Khaled, S., Schneider, F. A., Hagen, B., and Coseo, P.: 50 grades of shade, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 102, E1805–E1820, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0193.1, 2021.
Moretti, L., Di Mascio, P., and Fusco, C.: Porous Concrete for Pedestrian Pavements, Water, 11, 2105, https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102105, 2019.
Mullaney, J. and Lucke, T.: Practical Review of Pervious Pavement Designs, Clean Soil Air Water, 42, 111–124, https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201300118, 2014.
Nwakaire, C., Onn, C., Soon Poh, Y., Yuen, C. W., and Onodagu, P.: Urban Heat Island Studies with emphasis on urban pavements: A review, Sustain. Cities Soc., 63, 102476, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102476, 2020.
Oke, T. R.: The energetic basis of the urban heat island, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 108, 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710845502, 1982.
Oke, T. R., Mills, G., Christen, A., and Voogt, J. A.: Urban Climates, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139016476, 2017.
Pannicke-Prochnow, N., Krohn, C., Albrecht, D. J., and Thinius, K.: Bessere Nutzung von Entsiegelungspotenzialen zur Wiederherstellung von Bodenfunktionen und zur Klimaanpassung, Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/479/ publikationen/texte_141-2021_bessere_nutzung_von_ entsiegelungspotenzialen_zur_wiederherstellung_von_boden funktionen_und_zur_klimaanpassung.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2021.
Parker, D. E.: Urban heat island effects on estimates of observed climate change, WIREs Climate Change, 1, 123–133, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.21, 2010.
Peluso, P., Persichetti, G., and Moretti, L.: Effectiveness of Road Cool Pavements, Greenery, and Canopies to Reduce the Urban Heat Island Effects, Sustainability, 14, 16027, https://doi.org/10.3390/su142316027, 2022.
Qin, Y.: A review on the development of cool pavements to mitigate urban heat island effect, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 445–459, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.177, 2015.
R Core Team: R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Version R-4.3.0, https://www.r-project.org/ (last access: 30 April 2024), 2022.
Rezk, K.: Computational Parametric Assessment of Desealing Measures in the Urban Domain, Technische Universität Wien, https://doi.org/10.34726/hss.2021.85327, 2021.
Saito, K., Said, I., and Shinozaki, M.: Scenario-based application of neighborhood greening methods towards mitigating urban heat environment in a world heritage site – Malacca, Malaysia, The 13th International Congress of Asian Planning Schools Association (APSA), 12–14 August 2015, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, http://eprints.utm.my/61439/1/Scenario-BasedApplicationOfNeighborhoodIsmailSaid2015_GreeningMethodsTowardsMitigatingUrbanHeatEnvironment.pdf (last access: 27 January 2024), 2015.
Salim, M. H., Schlünzen, K. H., Grawe, D., Boettcher, M., Gierisch, A. M. U., and Fock, B. H.: The microscale obstacle-resolving meteorological model MITRAS v2.0: model theory, Geosci. Model Dev., 11, 3427–3445, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-11-3427-2018, 2018.
Santamouris, M.: Using cool pavements as a mitigation strategy to fight urban heat island – A review of the actual developments, Renewable and Sustain. Energ. Rev., 26, 224–240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.047, 2013.
Santos, P. M. D. and Júlio, E. N. B. S.: A state-of-the-art review on roughness quantification methods for concrete surfaces, Construct. Build. Mater., 38, 912–923, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.045, 2013.
Shackelford, C. D.: Geoenvironmental Engineering, in: Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier, ISBN 9780124095489, 2013.
Seifeddine, K., Amziane, S., Toussaint, E., and Ouldboukhitine, S. E.: Review on thermal behavior of cool pavements, Urban Climate, 51, 101667, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2023.101667, 2023.
Starke, P., Göbel, P., and Coldewey, W.: Effects on evaporation rates from different water-permeable pavement designs, Water Sci. Technol., 63, 2619–2627, https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.168, 2011.
Takebayashi, H. and Moriyama, M.: Study on the urban heat island mitigation effect achieved by converting to grass-covered parking, Solar Energy, 83, 1211–1223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2009.01.019, 2009.
Teoh, M.-Y., Shinozaki, M., Saito, K., and Said, I.: Developing climate-led landscapes and greenery in urban design: a case study at Ipoh, Malaysia, J. Asian Archit. Build., 21, 1640–1656, https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2021.1942881, 2022.
Tsoka, S., Tsikaloudaki, K., Theodosiou, T., and Bikas, D.: Urban Warming and Cities' Microclimates: Investigation Methods and Mitigation Strategies – A Review, Energies, 13, 1414, https://doi.org/10.3390/en13061414, 2020.
Vernier: Pyranometer (PYR-BTA), Vernier, Beaverton, https://www.vernier.com/files/manuals/pyr-bta.pdf (last access: 30 April 2024), 2012.
Wang, C., Wang, Z.-H., Kaloush, K. E., and Shacat, J.: Cool pavements for urban heat island mitigation: A synthetic review, Renew. Sustain. Energ. Rev., 146, 111171, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111171, 2021.
Wilke, S.: Bodenversiegelung, Umweltbundesamt, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/daten/flaeche-boden-land-oekosysteme/boden/bodenversiegelung (last access: 30 April 2024), 2022.
Short summary
Climate change adaptation measures like unsealings can reduce urban heat stress. As grass grid pavers have never been parameterized for microclimate model simulations with ENVI-met, a new parameterization was developed based on field measurements. To analyse the cooling potential, scenario analyses were performed for a densely developed area in Cologne. Statistically significant average cooling effects of up to −11.1 K were found for surface temperature and up to −2.9 K for 1 m air temperature.
Climate change adaptation measures like unsealings can reduce urban heat stress. As grass grid...