Articles | Volume 17, issue 18
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7157-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7157-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Methane dynamics in the Baltic Sea: investigating concentration, flux, and isotopic composition patterns using the coupled physical–biogeochemical model BALTSEM-CH4 v1.0
Baltic Nest Institute, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Bo G. Gustafsson
Baltic Nest Institute, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Martijn Hermans
Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Environmental Geochemistry Group, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, 00560 Helsinki, Finland
Christoph Humborg
Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Christian Stranne
Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
Related authors
Filippa Fransner, Agneta Fransson, Christoph Humborg, Erik Gustafsson, Letizia Tedesco, Robinson Hordoir, and Jonas Nycander
Biogeosciences, 16, 863–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-863-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-863-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Although rivers carry large amounts of organic material to the oceans, little is known about what fate it meets when it reaches the sea. In this study we are investigating the fate of the carbon in this organic matter by the use of a numerical model in combination with ship measurements from the northern Baltic Sea. Our results suggests that there is substantial remineralization taking place, transforming the organic carbon into CO2, which is released to the atmosphere.
Erik Gustafsson, Mathilde Hagens, Xiaole Sun, Daniel C. Reed, Christoph Humborg, Caroline P. Slomp, and Bo G. Gustafsson
Biogeosciences, 16, 437–456, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-437-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-437-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This work highlights that iron (Fe) dynamics plays a key role in the release of alkalinity from sediments, as exemplified for the Baltic Sea. It furthermore demonstrates that burial of Fe sulfides should be included in alkalinity budgets of low-oxygen basins. The sedimentary alkalinity generation may undergo large changes depending on both organic matter loads and oxygen conditions. Enhanced release of alkalinity from the seafloor can increase the CO2 storage capacity of seawater.
Erik Gustafsson, Christoph Humborg, Göran Björk, Christian Stranne, Leif G. Anderson, Marc C. Geibel, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Marcus Sundbom, Igor P. Semiletov, Brett F. Thornton, and Bo G. Gustafsson
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2017-115, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2017-115, 2017
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we quantify key carbon cycling processes on the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. A specific aim is to determine the pathways of terrestrial organic carbon (OC) supplied by rivers and coastline erosion – and particularly to what extent degradation of terrestrial OC contributes to air-sea CO2 exchange. We estimate that the shelf is a weak CO2 sink, although this sink is considerably reduced mainly by degradation of eroded OC and to a lesser extent by degradation of riverine OC.
Caroline P. Slomp, Martijn Hermans, Niels A. G. M. van Helmond, Silke Severmann, James McManus, Marit R. van Erk, and Sairah Malkin
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-817, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-817, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Biogeosciences (BG).
Short summary
Short summary
Cable bacteria couple oxidation of sulfide at depth in sediments with reduction of oxygen, nitrate or nitrite near the sediment surface, thereby preventing release of toxic hydrogen sulfide to the overlying water. We show evidence for a diversity of cable bacteria in sediments from hypoxic and anoxic basins along the continental margin of California and Mexico. Cable bacteria activity in this setting is likely periodic and dependent on the supply of organic matter and/or oxygen.
Abigail E. Robinson, Anna Scaini, Francisco J. Peña, Peter A. Hambäck, Christoph Humborg, and Fernando Jaramillo
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3248, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3248, 2024
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Hydrology and Earth System Sciences (HESS).
Short summary
Short summary
Wetlands are vital for flood control and drought resistance. These benefits are hard to pinpoint because they depend on water storage and movement, which are extremely variable. To address this, we study seasonal patterns of wetland water area using satellite imagery and AI. Out of 43 Swedish wetlands, we identify 6 groups with similar patterns, linking some to flood buffering and others to flood risk. This method can improve wetland management by identifying specific benefits.
Flor Vermassen, Clare Bird, Tirza M. Weitkamp, Kate F. Darling, Hanna Farnelid, Céline Heuzé, Allison Y. Hsiang, Salar Karam, Christian Stranne, Marcus Sundbom, and Helen K. Coxall
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1091, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-1091, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We provide the first systematic survey of planktonic foraminifera in the high Arctic Ocean. Our results describe the abundance and species composition under summer sea-ice. They indicate that the polar specialist N. pachyderma is the only species present, with subpolar species absent. The dataset will be a valuable reference for continued monitoring of the state of planktonic foraminifera communities as they respond to the ongoing sea-ice decline and the ‘Atlantification’ of the Arctic Ocean.
Julia Muchowski, Martin Jakobsson, Lars Umlauf, Lars Arneborg, Bo Gustafsson, Peter Holtermann, Christoph Humborg, and Christian Stranne
Ocean Sci., 19, 1809–1825, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1809-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-19-1809-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We show observational data of highly increased mixing and vertical salt flux rates in a sparsely sampled region of the northern Baltic Sea. Co-located acoustic observations complement our in situ measurements and visualize turbulent mixing with high spatial resolution. The observed mixing is generally not resolved in numerical models of the area but likely impacts the exchange of water between the adjacent basins as well as nutrient and oxygen conditions in the Bothnian Sea.
K. Mareike Paul, Martijn Hermans, Sami A. Jokinen, Inda Brinkmann, Helena L. Filipsson, and Tom Jilbert
Biogeosciences, 20, 5003–5028, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5003-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-5003-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Seawater naturally contains trace metals such as Mo and U, which accumulate under low oxygen conditions on the seafloor. Previous studies have used sediment Mo and U contents as an archive of changing oxygen concentrations in coastal waters. Here we show that in fjords the use of Mo and U for this purpose may be impaired by additional processes. Our findings have implications for the reliable use of Mo and U to reconstruct oxygen changes in fjords.
Johan Nilsson, Eef van Dongen, Martin Jakobsson, Matt O'Regan, and Christian Stranne
The Cryosphere, 17, 2455–2476, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2455-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2455-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate how topographical sills suppress basal glacier melt in Greenlandic fjords. The basal melt drives an exchange flow over the sill, but there is an upper flow limit set by the Atlantic Water features outside the fjord. If this limit is reached, the flow enters a new regime where the melt is suppressed and its sensitivity to the Atlantic Water temperature is reduced.
Eva Ehrnsten, Oleg Pavlovitch Savchuk, and Bo Gustav Gustafsson
Biogeosciences, 19, 3337–3367, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3337-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-3337-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the effects of benthic fauna, animals living on or in the seafloor, on the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus using a model of the Baltic Sea ecosystem. By eating and excreting, the animals transform a large part of organic matter sinking to the seafloor into inorganic forms, which fuel plankton blooms. Simultaneously, when they move around (bioturbate), phosphorus is bound in the sediments. This reduces nitrogen-fixing plankton blooms and oxygen depletion.
Karol Kuliński, Gregor Rehder, Eero Asmala, Alena Bartosova, Jacob Carstensen, Bo Gustafsson, Per O. J. Hall, Christoph Humborg, Tom Jilbert, Klaus Jürgens, H. E. Markus Meier, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Michael Naumann, Jørgen E. Olesen, Oleg Savchuk, Andreas Schramm, Caroline P. Slomp, Mikhail Sofiev, Anna Sobek, Beata Szymczycha, and Emma Undeman
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 633–685, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The paper covers the aspects related to changes in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus (C, N, P) external loads; their transformations in the coastal zone; changes in organic matter production (eutrophication) and remineralization (oxygen availability); and the role of sediments in burial and turnover of C, N, and P. Furthermore, this paper also focuses on changes in the marine CO2 system, the structure of the microbial community, and the role of contaminants for biogeochemical processes.
Matt O'Regan, Thomas M. Cronin, Brendan Reilly, Aage Kristian Olsen Alstrup, Laura Gemery, Anna Golub, Larry A. Mayer, Mathieu Morlighem, Matthias Moros, Ole L. Munk, Johan Nilsson, Christof Pearce, Henrieka Detlef, Christian Stranne, Flor Vermassen, Gabriel West, and Martin Jakobsson
The Cryosphere, 15, 4073–4097, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4073-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-4073-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Ryder Glacier is a marine-terminating glacier in north Greenland discharging ice into the Lincoln Sea. Here we use marine sediment cores to reconstruct its retreat and advance behavior through the Holocene. We show that while Sherard Osborn Fjord has a physiography conducive to glacier and ice tongue stability, Ryder still retreated more than 40 km inland from its current position by the Middle Holocene. This highlights the sensitivity of north Greenland's marine glaciers to climate change.
Niels A. G. M. van Helmond, Elizabeth K. Robertson, Daniel J. Conley, Martijn Hermans, Christoph Humborg, L. Joëlle Kubeneck, Wytze K. Lenstra, and Caroline P. Slomp
Biogeosciences, 17, 2745–2766, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2745-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2745-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the removal of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) in the eutrophic Stockholm archipelago (SA). High sedimentation rates and sediment P contents lead to high P burial. Benthic denitrification is the primary nitrate-reducing pathway. Together, these mechanisms limit P and N transport to the open Baltic Sea. We expect that further nutrient load reduction will contribute to recovery of the SA from low-oxygen conditions and that the sediments will continue to remove part of the P and N loads.
Kelly A. Hogan, Martin Jakobsson, Larry Mayer, Brendan T. Reilly, Anne E. Jennings, Joseph S. Stoner, Tove Nielsen, Katrine J. Andresen, Egon Nørmark, Katrien A. Heirman, Elina Kamla, Kevin Jerram, Christian Stranne, and Alan Mix
The Cryosphere, 14, 261–286, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-261-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-261-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Glacial sediments in fjords hold a key record of environmental and ice dynamic changes during ice retreat. Here we use a comprehensive geophysical survey from the Petermann Fjord system in NW Greenland to map these sediments, identify depositional processes and calculate glacial erosion rates for the retreating palaeo-Petermann ice stream. Ice streaming is the dominant control on glacial erosion rates which vary by an order of magnitude during deglaciation and are in line with modern rates.
Martin Jakobsson, Matt O'Regan, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Christian Stranne, Elizabeth Weidner, Jim Hansson, Richard Gyllencreutz, Christoph Humborg, Tina Elfwing, Alf Norkko, Joanna Norkko, Björn Nilsson, and Arne Sjöström
Earth Surf. Dynam., 8, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-8-1-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We studied coastal sea floor terraces in parts of the Baltic Sea using various types of sonar data, sediment cores, and video. Terraces (~1 m high, > 100 m long) are widespread in depths < 15 m and are formed in glacial clay. Our study supports an origin from groundwater flow through silty layers, undermining overlying layers when discharged at the sea floor. Submarine groundwater discharge like this may be a significant source of freshwater to the Baltic Sea that needs to be studied further.
Christian Stranne, Matt O'Regan, Martin Jakobsson, Volker Brüchert, and Marcelo Ketzer
Solid Earth, 10, 1541–1554, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1541-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/se-10-1541-2019, 2019
Martin Jakobsson, Christian Stranne, Matt O'Regan, Sarah L. Greenwood, Bo Gustafsson, Christoph Humborg, and Elizabeth Weidner
Ocean Sci., 15, 905–924, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-905-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-15-905-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
The bottom topography of the Baltic Sea is analysed using the digital depth model from the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODnet) published in 2018. Analyses include depth distribution vs. area and seafloor depth variation on a kilometre scale. The limits for the Baltic Sea and analysed sub-basins are from HELCOM. EMODnet is compared with the previously most widely used depth model and the area of deep water exchange between the Bothnian Sea and the Northern Baltic Proper.
Filippa Fransner, Agneta Fransson, Christoph Humborg, Erik Gustafsson, Letizia Tedesco, Robinson Hordoir, and Jonas Nycander
Biogeosciences, 16, 863–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-863-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-863-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Although rivers carry large amounts of organic material to the oceans, little is known about what fate it meets when it reaches the sea. In this study we are investigating the fate of the carbon in this organic matter by the use of a numerical model in combination with ship measurements from the northern Baltic Sea. Our results suggests that there is substantial remineralization taking place, transforming the organic carbon into CO2, which is released to the atmosphere.
Erik Gustafsson, Mathilde Hagens, Xiaole Sun, Daniel C. Reed, Christoph Humborg, Caroline P. Slomp, and Bo G. Gustafsson
Biogeosciences, 16, 437–456, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-437-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-437-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
This work highlights that iron (Fe) dynamics plays a key role in the release of alkalinity from sediments, as exemplified for the Baltic Sea. It furthermore demonstrates that burial of Fe sulfides should be included in alkalinity budgets of low-oxygen basins. The sedimentary alkalinity generation may undergo large changes depending on both organic matter loads and oxygen conditions. Enhanced release of alkalinity from the seafloor can increase the CO2 storage capacity of seawater.
Christian Stranne, Larry Mayer, Martin Jakobsson, Elizabeth Weidner, Kevin Jerram, Thomas C. Weber, Leif G. Anderson, Johan Nilsson, Göran Björk, and Katarina Gårdfeldt
Ocean Sci., 14, 503–514, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-503-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-503-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
The ocean surface mixed layer depth (MLD) is an important parameter within several research disciplines, as variations in the MLD influence air–sea CO2 exchange and ocean primary production. A new method is presented in which acoustic mapping of the MLD is done remotely by means of echo sounders. This method allows for observations of high-frequency variability in the MLD, as horizontal and temporal resolutions can be increased by orders of magnitude compared to traditional in situ measurements.
Göran Björk, Martin Jakobsson, Karen Assmann, Leif G. Andersson, Johan Nilsson, Christian Stranne, and Larry Mayer
Ocean Sci., 14, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-1-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-1-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents detailed bathymetric data along with hydrographic data at two deep passages across the Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean. The southern channel is relatively smooth with a sill depth close to 1700 m. Hydrographic data reveals an eastward flow in the southern part and opposite in the northern part. The northern passage is characterized by a narrow and steep ridge with a sill depth of 1470 m. Here, water exchange appears to occur in well-defined but irregular vertical layers.
Matt O'Regan, Jan Backman, Natalia Barrientos, Thomas M. Cronin, Laura Gemery, Nina Kirchner, Larry A. Mayer, Johan Nilsson, Riko Noormets, Christof Pearce, Igor Semiletov, Christian Stranne, and Martin Jakobsson
Clim. Past, 13, 1269–1284, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-1269-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-1269-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Past glacial activity on the East Siberian continental margin is poorly known, partly due to the lack of geomorphological evidence. Here we present geophysical mapping and sediment coring data from the East Siberian shelf and slope revealing the presence of a glacially excavated cross-shelf trough reaching to the continental shelf edge north of the De Long Islands. The data provide direct evidence for extensive glacial activity on the Siberian shelf that predates the Last Glacial Maximum.
Tommaso Tesi, Marc C. Geibel, Christof Pearce, Elena Panova, Jorien E. Vonk, Emma Karlsson, Joan A. Salvado, Martin Kruså, Lisa Bröder, Christoph Humborg, Igor Semiletov, and Örjan Gustafsson
Ocean Sci., 13, 735–748, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-735-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-735-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Recent Arctic studies suggest that sea-ice decline and permafrost thawing will affect the phytoplankton in the Arctic Ocean. However, in what way the plankton composition will change as the warming proceeds remains elusive. Here we show that the carbon composition of plankton might change as a function of the enhanced terrestrial organic carbon supply and progressive sea-ice thawing.
Martin Jakobsson, Christof Pearce, Thomas M. Cronin, Jan Backman, Leif G. Anderson, Natalia Barrientos, Göran Björk, Helen Coxall, Agatha de Boer, Larry A. Mayer, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Johan Nilsson, Jayne E. Rattray, Christian Stranne, Igor Semiletov, and Matt O'Regan
Clim. Past, 13, 991–1005, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-991-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-991-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The Arctic and Pacific oceans are connected by the presently ~53 m deep Bering Strait. During the last glacial period when the sea level was lower than today, the Bering Strait was exposed. Humans and animals could then migrate between Asia and North America across the formed land bridge. From analyses of sediment cores and geophysical mapping data from Herald Canyon north of the Bering Strait, we show that the land bridge was flooded about 11 000 years ago.
Johan Nilsson, Martin Jakobsson, Chris Borstad, Nina Kirchner, Göran Björk, Raymond T. Pierrehumbert, and Christian Stranne
The Cryosphere, 11, 1745–1765, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1745-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1745-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Recent data suggest that a 1 km thick ice shelf extended over the glacial Arctic Ocean during MIS 6, about 140 000 years ago. Here, we theoretically analyse the development and equilibrium features of such an ice shelf. The ice shelf was effectively dammed by the Fram Strait and the mean ice-shelf thickness was controlled primarily by the horizontally integrated mass balance. Our results can aid in resolving some outstanding questions of the state of the glacial Arctic Ocean.
Clint M. Miller, Gerald R. Dickens, Martin Jakobsson, Carina Johansson, Andrey Koshurnikov, Matt O'Regan, Francesco Muschitiello, Christian Stranne, and Carl-Magnus Mörth
Biogeosciences, 14, 2929–2953, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2929-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-14-2929-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
Continental slopes north of the East Siberian Sea are assumed to hold large amounts of methane. We present pore water chemistry from the 2014 SWERUS-C3 expedition. These are among the first results generated from this vast climatically sensitive region, and they imply that abundant methane, including gas hydrates, do not characterize the East Siberian Sea slope or rise. This contradicts previous modeling and discussions, which due to the lack of data are almost entirely based assumption.
Leif G. Anderson, Göran Björk, Ola Holby, Sara Jutterström, Carl Magnus Mörth, Matt O'Regan, Christof Pearce, Igor Semiletov, Christian Stranne, Tim Stöven, Toste Tanhua, Adam Ulfsbo, and Martin Jakobsson
Ocean Sci., 13, 349–363, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-349-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-13-349-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
We use data collected in 2014 to show that the outflow of nutrient-rich water occurs much further to the west than has been reported in the past. We suggest that this is due to much less summer sea-ice coverage in the northwestern East Siberian Sea than in the past decades. Further, our data support a more complicated flow pattern in the region where the Mendeleev Ridge reaches the shelf compared to the general cyclonic circulation within the individual basins as suggested historically.
Erik Gustafsson, Christoph Humborg, Göran Björk, Christian Stranne, Leif G. Anderson, Marc C. Geibel, Carl-Magnus Mörth, Marcus Sundbom, Igor P. Semiletov, Brett F. Thornton, and Bo G. Gustafsson
Biogeosciences Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2017-115, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-2017-115, 2017
Preprint withdrawn
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we quantify key carbon cycling processes on the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. A specific aim is to determine the pathways of terrestrial organic carbon (OC) supplied by rivers and coastline erosion – and particularly to what extent degradation of terrestrial OC contributes to air-sea CO2 exchange. We estimate that the shelf is a weak CO2 sink, although this sink is considerably reduced mainly by degradation of eroded OC and to a lesser extent by degradation of riverine OC.
Related subject area
Climate and Earth system modeling
A rapid-application emissions-to-impacts tool for scenario assessment: Probabilistic Regional Impacts from Model patterns and Emissions (PRIME)
The DOE E3SM version 2.1: overview and assessment of the impacts of parameterized ocean submesoscales
WRF-ELM v1.0: a regional climate model to study land–atmosphere interactions over heterogeneous land use regions
Modeling commercial-scale CO2 storage in the gas hydrate stability zone with PFLOTRAN v6.0
DiuSST: a conceptual model of diurnal warm layers for idealized atmospheric simulations with interactive sea surface temperature
High-Resolution Model Intercomparison Project phase 2 (HighResMIP2) towards CMIP7
T&C-CROP: representing mechanistic crop growth with a terrestrial biosphere model (T&C, v1.5) – model formulation and validation
An updated non-intrusive, multi-scale, and flexible coupling interface in WRF 4.6.0
Monitoring and benchmarking Earth system model simulations with ESMValTool v2.12.0
The Earth Science Box Modeling Toolkit (ESBMTK 0.14.0.11): a Python library for research and teaching
CropSuite v1.0 – a comprehensive open-source crop suitability model considering climate variability for climate impact assessment
ICON ComIn – the ICON Community Interface (ComIn version 0.1.0, with ICON version 2024.01-01)
Using feature importance as an exploratory data analysis tool on Earth system models
A new metrics framework for quantifying and intercomparing atmospheric rivers in observations, reanalyses, and climate models
The real challenges for climate and weather modelling on its way to sustained exascale performance: a case study using ICON (v2.6.6)
Improving the representation of major Indian crops in the Community Land Model version 5.0 (CLM5) using site-scale crop data
Evaluation of CORDEX ERA5-forced NARCliM2.0 regional climate models over Australia using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model version 4.1.2
Design, evaluation, and future projections of the NARCliM2.0 CORDEX-CMIP6 Australasia regional climate ensemble
Amending the algorithm of aerosol–radiation interactions in WRF-Chem (v4.4)
The very-high-resolution configuration of the EC-Earth global model for HighResMIP
GOSI9: UK Global Ocean and Sea Ice configurations
Decomposition of skill scores for conditional verification: impact of Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation phases on the predictability of decadal temperature forecasts
Virtual Integration of Satellite and In-situ Observation Networks (VISION) v1.0: In-Situ Observations Simulator (ISO_simulator)
Climate model downscaling in central Asia: a dynamical and a neural network approach
Multi-year simulations at kilometre scale with the Integrated Forecasting System coupled to FESOM2.5 and NEMOv3.4
Subsurface hydrological controls on the short-term effects of hurricanes on nitrate–nitrogen runoff loading: a case study of Hurricane Ida using the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) Land Model (v2.1)
CARIB12: a regional Community Earth System Model/Modular Ocean Model 6 configuration of the Caribbean Sea
Architectural insights into and training methodology optimization of Pangu-Weather
Evaluation of global fire simulations in CMIP6 Earth system models
Evaluating downscaled products with expected hydroclimatic co-variances
Software sustainability of global impact models
fair-calibrate v1.4.1: calibration, constraining, and validation of the FaIR simple climate model for reliable future climate projections
ISOM 1.0: a fully mesoscale-resolving idealized Southern Ocean model and the diversity of multiscale eddy interactions
A computationally lightweight model for ensemble forecasting of environmental hazards: General TAMSAT-ALERT v1.2.1
Introducing the MESMER-M-TPv0.1.0 module: spatially explicit Earth system model emulation for monthly precipitation and temperature
Investigating Carbon and Nitrogen Conservation in Reported CMIP6 Earth System Model Data
The need for carbon-emissions-driven climate projections in CMIP7
Robust handling of extremes in quantile mapping – “Murder your darlings”
A protocol for model intercomparison of impacts of marine cloud brightening climate intervention
An extensible perturbed parameter ensemble for the Community Atmosphere Model version 6
Coupling the regional climate model ICON-CLM v2.6.6 to the Earth system model GCOAST-AHOI v2.0 using OASIS3-MCT v4.0
A fully coupled solid-particle microphysics scheme for stratospheric aerosol injections within the aerosol–chemistry–climate model SOCOL-AERv2
The Tropical Basin Interaction Model Intercomparison Project (TBIMIP)
An improved representation of aerosol in the ECMWF IFS-COMPO 49R1 through the integration of EQSAM4Climv12 – a first attempt at simulating aerosol acidity
At-scale Model Output Statistics in mountain environments (AtsMOS v1.0)
Impact of ocean vertical-mixing parameterization on Arctic sea ice and upper-ocean properties using the NEMO-SI3 model
Development and evaluation of a new 4DEnVar-based weakly coupled ocean data assimilation system in E3SMv2
Bridging the gap: a new module for human water use in the Community Earth System Model version 2.2.1
PaleoSTeHM v1.0-rc: a modern, scalable spatio-temporal hierarchical modeling framework for paleo-environmental data
From Weather Data to River Runoff: Leveraging Spatiotemporal Convolutional Networks for Comprehensive Discharge Forecasting
Camilla Mathison, Eleanor J. Burke, Gregory Munday, Chris D. Jones, Chris J. Smith, Norman J. Steinert, Andy J. Wiltshire, Chris Huntingford, Eszter Kovacs, Laila K. Gohar, Rebecca M. Varney, and Douglas McNeall
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1785–1808, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1785-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1785-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present PRIME (Probabilistic Regional Impacts from Model patterns and Emissions), which is designed to take new emissions scenarios and rapidly provide regional impact information. PRIME allows large ensembles to be run on multi-centennial timescales, including the analysis of many important variables for impact assessments. Our evaluation shows that PRIME reproduces the climate response for known scenarios, providing confidence in using PRIME for novel scenarios.
Katherine M. Smith, Alice M. Barthel, LeAnn M. Conlon, Luke P. Van Roekel, Anthony Bartoletti, Jean-Christophe Golaz, Chengzhu Zhang, Carolyn Branecky Begeman, James J. Benedict, Gautam Bisht, Yan Feng, Walter Hannah, Bryce E. Harrop, Nicole Jeffery, Wuyin Lin, Po-Lun Ma, Mathew E. Maltrud, Mark R. Petersen, Balwinder Singh, Qi Tang, Teklu Tesfa, Jonathan D. Wolfe, Shaocheng Xie, Xue Zheng, Karthik Balaguru, Oluwayemi Garuba, Peter Gleckler, Aixue Hu, Jiwoo Lee, Ben Moore-Maley, and Ana C. Ordoñez
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1613–1633, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1613-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1613-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Version 2.1 of the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM) adds the Fox-Kemper et al. (2011) mixed-layer eddy parameterization, which restratifies the ocean surface layer through an overturning streamfunction. Results include surface layer bias reduction in temperature, salinity, and sea ice extent in the North Atlantic; a small strengthening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation; and improvements to many atmospheric climatological variables.
Huilin Huang, Yun Qian, Gautam Bisht, Jiali Wang, Tirthankar Chakraborty, Dalei Hao, Jianfeng Li, Travis Thurber, Balwinder Singh, Zhao Yang, Ye Liu, Pengfei Xue, William J. Sacks, Ethan Coon, and Robert Hetland
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1427–1443, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1427-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1427-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We integrate the E3SM Land Model (ELM) with the WRF model through the Lightweight Infrastructure for Land Atmosphere Coupling (LILAC) Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF). This framework includes a top-level driver, LILAC, for variable communication between WRF and ELM and ESMF caps for ELM initialization, execution, and finalization. The LILAC–ESMF framework maintains the integrity of the ELM's source code structure and facilitates the transfer of future ELM model developments to WRF-ELM.
Michael Nole, Jonah Bartrand, Fawz Naim, and Glenn Hammond
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1413–1425, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1413-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1413-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Safe carbon dioxide (CO2) storage is likely to be critical for mitigating some of the most severe effects of climate change. We present a simulation framework for modeling CO2 storage beneath the seafloor, where CO2 can form a solid. This can aid in permanent CO2 storage for long periods of time. Our models show what a commercial-scale CO2 injection would look like in a marine environment. We discuss what would need to be considered when designing a subsea CO2 injection.
Reyk Börner, Jan O. Haerter, and Romain Fiévet
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1333–1356, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1333-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1333-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The daily cycle of sea surface temperature (SST) impacts clouds above the ocean and could influence the clustering of thunderstorms linked to extreme rainfall and hurricanes. However, daily SST variability is often poorly represented in modeling studies of how clouds cluster. We present a simple, wind-responsive model of upper-ocean temperature for use in atmospheric simulations. Evaluating the model against observations, we show that it performs significantly better than common slab models.
Malcolm J. Roberts, Kevin A. Reed, Qing Bao, Joseph J. Barsugli, Suzana J. Camargo, Louis-Philippe Caron, Ping Chang, Cheng-Ta Chen, Hannah M. Christensen, Gokhan Danabasoglu, Ivy Frenger, Neven S. Fučkar, Shabeh ul Hasson, Helene T. Hewitt, Huanping Huang, Daehyun Kim, Chihiro Kodama, Michael Lai, Lai-Yung Ruby Leung, Ryo Mizuta, Paulo Nobre, Pablo Ortega, Dominique Paquin, Christopher D. Roberts, Enrico Scoccimarro, Jon Seddon, Anne Marie Treguier, Chia-Ying Tu, Paul A. Ullrich, Pier Luigi Vidale, Michael F. Wehner, Colin M. Zarzycki, Bosong Zhang, Wei Zhang, and Ming Zhao
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1307–1332, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1307-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1307-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
HighResMIP2 is a model intercomparison project focusing on high-resolution global climate models, that is, those with grid spacings of 25 km or less in the atmosphere and ocean, using simulations of decades to a century in length. We are proposing an update of our simulation protocol to make the models more applicable to key questions for climate variability and hazard in present-day and future projections and to build links with other communities to provide more robust climate information.
Jordi Buckley Paules, Simone Fatichi, Bonnie Warring, and Athanasios Paschalis
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1287–1305, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1287-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1287-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present and validate enhancements to the process-based T&C model aimed at improving its representation of crop growth and management practices. The updated model, T&C-CROP, enables applications such as analysing the hydrological and carbon storage impacts of land use transitions (e.g. conversions between crops, forests, and pastures) and optimizing irrigation and fertilization strategies in response to climate change.
Sébastien Masson, Swen Jullien, Eric Maisonnave, David Gill, Guillaume Samson, Mathieu Le Corre, and Lionel Renault
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1241–1263, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1241-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1241-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This article details a new feature we implemented in the popular regional atmospheric model WRF. This feature allows for data exchange between WRF and any other model (e.g. an ocean model) using the coupling library Ocean–Atmosphere–Sea–Ice–Soil Model Coupling Toolkit (OASIS3-MCT). This coupling interface is designed to be non-intrusive, flexible and modular. It also offers the possibility of taking into account the nested zooms used in WRF or in the models with which it is coupled.
Axel Lauer, Lisa Bock, Birgit Hassler, Patrick Jöckel, Lukas Ruhe, and Manuel Schlund
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1169–1188, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1169-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1169-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Earth system models are important tools to improve our understanding of current climate and to project climate change. Thus, it is crucial to understand possible shortcomings in the models. New features of the ESMValTool software package allow one to compare and visualize a model's performance with respect to reproducing observations in the context of other climate models in an easy and user-friendly way. We aim to help model developers assess and monitor climate simulations more efficiently.
Ulrich G. Wortmann, Tina Tsan, Mahrukh Niazi, Irene A. Ma, Ruben Navasardyan, Magnus-Roland Marun, Bernardo S. Chede, Jingwen Zhong, and Morgan Wolfe
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1155–1167, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1155-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1155-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Earth Science Box Modeling Toolkit (ESBMTK) is a user-friendly Python library that simplifies the creation of models to study earth system processes, such as the carbon cycle and ocean chemistry. It enhances learning by emphasizing concepts over programming and is accessible to students and researchers alike. By automating complex calculations and promoting code clarity, ESBMTK accelerates model development while improving reproducibility and the usability of scientific research.
Florian Zabel, Matthias Knüttel, and Benjamin Poschlod
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1067–1087, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1067-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1067-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
CropSuite is a new open-source crop suitability model. It provides a GUI and a wide range of options, including a spatial downscaling of climate data. We apply CropSuite to 48 staple and opportunity crops at a 1 km spatial resolution in Africa. We find that climate variability significantly impacts suitable areas but also affects optimal sowing dates and multiple cropping potential. The results provide valuable information for climate impact assessments, adaptation, and land-use planning.
Kerstin Hartung, Bastian Kern, Nils-Arne Dreier, Jörn Geisbüsch, Mahnoosh Haghighatnasab, Patrick Jöckel, Astrid Kerkweg, Wilton Jaciel Loch, Florian Prill, and Daniel Rieger
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1001–1015, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1001-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1001-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The ICOsahedral Non-hydrostatic (ICON) model system Community Interface (ComIn) library supports connecting third-party modules to the ICON model. Third-party modules can range from simple diagnostic Python scripts to full chemistry models. ComIn offers a low barrier for code extensions to ICON, provides multi-language support (Fortran, C/C++, and Python), and reduces the migration effort in response to new ICON releases. This paper presents the ComIn design principles and a range of use cases.
Daniel Ries, Katherine Goode, Kellie McClernon, and Benjamin Hillman
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 1041–1065, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1041-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-1041-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Machine learning has advanced research in the climate science domain, but its models are difficult to understand. In order to understand the impacts and consequences of climate interventions such as stratospheric aerosol injection, complex models are often necessary. We use a case study to illustrate how we can understand the inner workings of a complex model. We present this technique as an exploratory tool that can be used to quickly discover and assess relationships in complex climate data.
Bo Dong, Paul Ullrich, Jiwoo Lee, Peter Gleckler, Kristin Chang, and Travis A. O'Brien
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 961–976, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-961-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-961-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A metrics package designed for easy analysis of atmospheric river (AR) characteristics and statistics is presented. The tool is efficient for diagnosing systematic AR bias in climate models and useful for evaluating new AR characteristics in model simulations. In climate models, landfalling AR precipitation shows dry biases globally, and AR tracks are farther poleward (equatorward) in the North and South Atlantic (South Pacific and Indian Ocean).
Panagiotis Adamidis, Erik Pfister, Hendryk Bockelmann, Dominik Zobel, Jens-Olaf Beismann, and Marek Jacob
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 905–919, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-905-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-905-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper, we investigated performance indicators of the climate model ICON (ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic) on different compute architectures to answer the question of how to generate high-resolution climate simulations. Evidently, it is not enough to use more computing units of the conventionally used architectures; higher memory throughput is the most promising approach. More potential can be gained from single-node optimization rather than simply increasing the number of compute nodes.
Kangari Narender Reddy, Somnath Baidya Roy, Sam S. Rabin, Danica L. Lombardozzi, Gudimetla Venkateswara Varma, Ruchira Biswas, and Devavat Chiru Naik
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 763–785, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-763-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-763-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The study aimed to improve the representation of wheat and rice in a land model for the Indian region. The modified model performed significantly better than the default model in simulating crop phenology, yield, and carbon, water, and energy fluxes compared to observations. The study highlights the need for global land models to use region-specific crop parameters for accurately simulating vegetation processes and land surface processes.
Giovanni Di Virgilio, Fei Ji, Eugene Tam, Jason P. Evans, Jatin Kala, Julia Andrys, Christopher Thomas, Dipayan Choudhury, Carlos Rocha, Yue Li, and Matthew L. Riley
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 703–724, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-703-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-703-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate the skill in simulating the Australian climate of some of the latest generation of regional climate models. We show when and where the models simulate this climate with high skill versus model limitations. We show how new models perform relative to the previous-generation models, assessing how model design features may underlie key performance improvements. This work is of national and international relevance as it can help guide the use and interpretation of climate projections.
Giovanni Di Virgilio, Jason P. Evans, Fei Ji, Eugene Tam, Jatin Kala, Julia Andrys, Christopher Thomas, Dipayan Choudhury, Carlos Rocha, Stephen White, Yue Li, Moutassem El Rafei, Rishav Goyal, Matthew L. Riley, and Jyothi Lingala
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 671–702, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-671-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-671-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We introduce new climate models that simulate Australia’s future climate at regional scales, including at an unprecedented resolution of 4 km for 1950–2100. We describe the model design process used to create these new climate models. We show how the new models perform relative to previous-generation models and compare their climate projections. This work is of national and international relevance as it can help guide climate model design and the use and interpretation of climate projections.
Jiawang Feng, Chun Zhao, Qiuyan Du, Zining Yang, and Chen Jin
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 585–603, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-585-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-585-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we improved the calculation of how aerosols in the air interact with radiation in WRF-Chem. The original model used a simplified method, but we developed a more accurate approach. We found that this method significantly changes the properties of the estimated aerosols and their effects on radiation, especially for dust aerosols. It also impacts the simulated weather conditions. Our work highlights the importance of correctly representing aerosol–radiation interactions in models.
Eduardo Moreno-Chamarro, Thomas Arsouze, Mario Acosta, Pierre-Antoine Bretonnière, Miguel Castrillo, Eric Ferrer, Amanda Frigola, Daria Kuznetsova, Eneko Martin-Martinez, Pablo Ortega, and Sergi Palomas
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 461–482, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-461-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-461-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present the high-resolution model version of the EC-Earth global climate model to contribute to HighResMIP. The combined model resolution is about 10–15 km in both the ocean and atmosphere, which makes it one of the finest ever used to complete historical and scenario simulations. This model is compared with two lower-resolution versions, with a 100 km and a 25 km grid. The three models are compared with observations to study the improvements thanks to the increased resolution.
Catherine Guiavarc'h, David Storkey, Adam T. Blaker, Ed Blockley, Alex Megann, Helene Hewitt, Michael J. Bell, Daley Calvert, Dan Copsey, Bablu Sinha, Sophia Moreton, Pierre Mathiot, and Bo An
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 377–403, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-377-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-377-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Ocean and Sea Ice configuration version 9 (GOSI9) is the new UK hierarchy of model configurations based on the Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean (NEMO) and available at three resolutions. It will be used for various applications, e.g. weather forecasting and climate prediction. It improves upon the previous version by reducing global temperature and salinity biases and enhancing the representation of Arctic sea ice and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
Andy Richling, Jens Grieger, and Henning W. Rust
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 361–375, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-361-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-361-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The performance of weather and climate prediction systems is variable in time and space. It is of interest how this performance varies in different situations. We provide a decomposition of a skill score (a measure of forecast performance) as a tool for detailed assessment of performance variability to support model development or forecast improvement. The framework is exemplified with decadal forecasts to assess the impact of different ocean states in the North Atlantic on temperature forecast.
Maria R. Russo, Sadie L. Bartholomew, David Hassell, Alex M. Mason, Erica Neininger, A. James Perman, David A. J. Sproson, Duncan Watson-Parris, and Nathan Luke Abraham
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 181–191, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-181-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-181-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Observational data and modelling capabilities have expanded in recent years, but there are still barriers preventing these two data sources from being used in synergy. Proper comparison requires generating, storing, and handling a large amount of data. This work describes the first step in the development of a new set of software tools, the VISION toolkit, which can enable the easy and efficient integration of observational and model data required for model evaluation.
Bijan Fallah, Masoud Rostami, Emmanuele Russo, Paula Harder, Christoph Menz, Peter Hoffmann, Iulii Didovets, and Fred F. Hattermann
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 161–180, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-161-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-161-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We tried to contribute to a local climate change impact study in central Asia, a region that is water-scarce and vulnerable to global climate change. We use regional models and machine learning to produce reliable local data from global climate models. We find that regional models show more realistic and detailed changes in heavy precipitation than global climate models. Our work can help assess the future risks of extreme events and plan adaptation strategies in central Asia.
Thomas Rackow, Xabier Pedruzo-Bagazgoitia, Tobias Becker, Sebastian Milinski, Irina Sandu, Razvan Aguridan, Peter Bechtold, Sebastian Beyer, Jean Bidlot, Souhail Boussetta, Willem Deconinck, Michail Diamantakis, Peter Dueben, Emanuel Dutra, Richard Forbes, Rohit Ghosh, Helge F. Goessling, Ioan Hadade, Jan Hegewald, Thomas Jung, Sarah Keeley, Lukas Kluft, Nikolay Koldunov, Aleksei Koldunov, Tobias Kölling, Josh Kousal, Christian Kühnlein, Pedro Maciel, Kristian Mogensen, Tiago Quintino, Inna Polichtchouk, Balthasar Reuter, Domokos Sármány, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Jan Streffing, Birgit Sützl, Daisuke Takasuka, Steffen Tietsche, Mirco Valentini, Benoît Vannière, Nils Wedi, Lorenzo Zampieri, and Florian Ziemen
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 33–69, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-33-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-33-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Detailed global climate model simulations have been created based on a numerical weather prediction model, offering more accurate spatial detail down to the scale of individual cities ("kilometre-scale") and a better understanding of climate phenomena such as atmospheric storms, whirls in the ocean, and cracks in sea ice. The new model aims to provide globally consistent information on local climate change with greater precision, benefiting environmental planning and local impact modelling.
Yilin Fang, Hoang Viet Tran, and L. Ruby Leung
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 19–32, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-19-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-19-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Hurricanes may worsen water quality in the lower Mississippi River basin (LMRB) by increasing nutrient runoff. We found that runoff parameterizations greatly affect nitrate–nitrogen runoff simulated using an Earth system land model. Our simulations predicted increased nitrogen runoff in the LMRB during Hurricane Ida in 2021, albeit less pronounced than the observations, indicating areas for model improvement to better understand and manage nutrient runoff loss during hurricanes in the region.
Giovanni Seijo-Ellis, Donata Giglio, Gustavo Marques, and Frank Bryan
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8989–9021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8989-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8989-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A CESM–MOM6 regional configuration of the Caribbean Sea was developed in response to the rising need for high-resolution models for climate impact studies. The configuration is validated for the period 2000–2020 and improves significant errors in a low-resolution model. Oceanic properties are well represented. Patterns of freshwater associated with the Amazon River are well captured, and the mean flows of ocean waters across multiple passages in the Caribbean Sea agree with observations.
Deifilia To, Julian Quinting, Gholam Ali Hoshyaripour, Markus Götz, Achim Streit, and Charlotte Debus
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8873–8884, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8873-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8873-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Pangu-Weather is a breakthrough machine learning model in medium-range weather forecasting that considers 3D atmospheric information. We show that using a simpler 2D framework improves robustness, speeds up training, and reduces computational needs by 20 %–30 %. We introduce a training procedure that varies the importance of atmospheric variables over time to speed up training convergence. Decreasing computational demand increases the accessibility of training and working with the model.
Fang Li, Xiang Song, Sandy P. Harrison, Jennifer R. Marlon, Zhongda Lin, L. Ruby Leung, Jörg Schwinger, Virginie Marécal, Shiyu Wang, Daniel S. Ward, Xiao Dong, Hanna Lee, Lars Nieradzik, Sam S. Rabin, and Roland Séférian
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8751–8771, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8751-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8751-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of historical fire simulations from 19 Earth system models in phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). Most models reproduce global totals, spatial patterns, seasonality, and regional historical changes well but fail to simulate the recent decline in global burned area and underestimate the fire response to climate variability. CMIP6 simulations address three critical issues of phase-5 models.
Seung H. Baek, Paul A. Ullrich, Bo Dong, and Jiwoo Lee
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8665–8681, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8665-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8665-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate downscaled products by examining locally relevant co-variances during precipitation events. Common statistical downscaling techniques preserve expected co-variances during convective precipitation (a stationary phenomenon). However, they dampen future intensification of frontal precipitation (a non-stationary phenomenon) captured in global climate models and dynamical downscaling. Our study quantifies a ramification of the stationarity assumption underlying statistical downscaling.
Emmanuel Nyenah, Petra Döll, Daniel S. Katz, and Robert Reinecke
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8593–8611, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8593-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8593-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Research software is vital for scientific progress but is often developed by scientists with limited skills, time, and funding, leading to challenges in usability and maintenance. Our study across 10 sectors shows strengths in version control, open-source licensing, and documentation while emphasizing the need for containerization and code quality. We recommend workshops; code quality metrics; funding; and following the findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable (FAIR) standards.
Chris Smith, Donald P. Cummins, Hege-Beate Fredriksen, Zebedee Nicholls, Malte Meinshausen, Myles Allen, Stuart Jenkins, Nicholas Leach, Camilla Mathison, and Antti-Ilari Partanen
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8569–8592, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8569-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8569-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Climate projections are only useful if the underlying models that produce them are well calibrated and can reproduce observed climate change. We formalise a software package that calibrates the open-source FaIR simple climate model to full-complexity Earth system models. Observations, including historical warming, and assessments of key climate variables such as that of climate sensitivity are used to constrain the model output.
Jingwei Xie, Xi Wang, Hailong Liu, Pengfei Lin, Jiangfeng Yu, Zipeng Yu, Junlin Wei, and Xiang Han
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8469–8493, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8469-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8469-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We propose the concept of mesoscale ocean direct numerical simulation (MODNS), which should resolve the first baroclinic deformation radius and ensure the numerical dissipative effects do not directly contaminate the mesoscale motions. It can be a benchmark for testing mesoscale ocean large eddy simulation (MOLES) methods in ocean models. We build an idealized Southern Ocean model using MITgcm to generate a type of MODNS. We also illustrate the diversity of multiscale eddy interactions.
Emily Black, John Ellis, and Ross I. Maidment
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8353–8372, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8353-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8353-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present General TAMSAT-ALERT, a computationally lightweight and versatile tool for generating ensemble forecasts from time series data. General TAMSAT-ALERT is capable of combining multiple streams of monitoring and meteorological forecasting data into probabilistic hazard assessments. In this way, it complements existing systems and enhances their utility for actionable hazard assessment.
Sarah Schöngart, Lukas Gudmundsson, Mathias Hauser, Peter Pfleiderer, Quentin Lejeune, Shruti Nath, Sonia Isabelle Seneviratne, and Carl-Friedrich Schleussner
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8283–8320, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8283-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8283-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Precipitation and temperature are two of the most impact-relevant climatic variables. Yet, projecting future precipitation and temperature data under different emission scenarios relies on complex models that are computationally expensive. In this study, we propose a method that allows us to generate monthly means of local precipitation and temperature at low computational costs. Our modelling framework is particularly useful for all downstream applications of climate model data.
Gang Tang, Zebedee Nicholls, Chris Jones, Thomas Gasser, Alexander Norton, Tilo Ziehn, Alejandro Romero-Prieto, and Malte Meinshausen
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3522, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3522, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We analyzed carbon and nitrogen mass conservation in data from CMIP6 Earth System Models. Our findings reveal significant discrepancies between flux and pool size data, particularly in nitrogen, where cumulative imbalances can reach hundreds of gigatons. These imbalances appear primarily due to missing or inconsistently reported fluxes – especially for land use and fire emissions. To enhance data quality, we recommend that future climate data protocols address this issue at the reporting stage.
Benjamin M. Sanderson, Ben B. B. Booth, John Dunne, Veronika Eyring, Rosie A. Fisher, Pierre Friedlingstein, Matthew J. Gidden, Tomohiro Hajima, Chris D. Jones, Colin G. Jones, Andrew King, Charles D. Koven, David M. Lawrence, Jason Lowe, Nadine Mengis, Glen P. Peters, Joeri Rogelj, Chris Smith, Abigail C. Snyder, Isla R. Simpson, Abigail L. S. Swann, Claudia Tebaldi, Tatiana Ilyina, Carl-Friedrich Schleussner, Roland Séférian, Bjørn H. Samset, Detlef van Vuuren, and Sönke Zaehle
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8141–8172, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8141-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8141-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We discuss how, in order to provide more relevant guidance for climate policy, coordinated climate experiments should adopt a greater focus on simulations where Earth system models are provided with carbon emissions from fossil fuels together with land use change instructions, rather than past approaches that have largely focused on experiments with prescribed atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. We discuss how these goals might be achieved in coordinated climate modeling experiments.
Peter Berg, Thomas Bosshard, Denica Bozhinova, Lars Bärring, Joakim Löw, Carolina Nilsson, Gustav Strandberg, Johan Södling, Johan Thuresson, Renate Wilcke, and Wei Yang
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 8173–8179, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8173-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-8173-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
When bias adjusting climate model data using quantile mapping, one needs to prescribe what to do at the tails of the distribution, where a larger data range is likely encountered outside of the calibration period. The end result is highly dependent on the method used. We show that, to avoid discontinuities in the time series, one needs to exclude data in the calibration range to also activate the extrapolation functionality in that time period.
Philip J. Rasch, Haruki Hirasawa, Mingxuan Wu, Sarah J. Doherty, Robert Wood, Hailong Wang, Andy Jones, James Haywood, and Hansi Singh
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7963–7994, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7963-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7963-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We introduce a protocol to compare computer climate simulations to better understand a proposed strategy intended to counter warming and climate impacts from greenhouse gas increases. This slightly changes clouds in six ocean regions to reflect more sunlight and cool the Earth. Example changes in clouds and climate are shown for three climate models. Cloud changes differ between the models, but precipitation and surface temperature changes are similar when their cooling effects are made similar.
Trude Eidhammer, Andrew Gettelman, Katherine Thayer-Calder, Duncan Watson-Parris, Gregory Elsaesser, Hugh Morrison, Marcus van Lier-Walqui, Ci Song, and Daniel McCoy
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7835–7853, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7835-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7835-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We describe a dataset where 45 parameters related to cloud processes in the Community Earth System Model version 2 (CESM2) Community Atmosphere Model version 6 (CAM6) are perturbed. Three sets of perturbed parameter ensembles (263 members) were created: current climate, preindustrial aerosol loading and future climate with sea surface temperature increased by 4 K.
Ha Thi Minh Ho-Hagemann, Vera Maurer, Stefan Poll, and Irina Fast
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7815–7834, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7815-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7815-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The regional Earth system model GCOAST-AHOI v2.0 that includes the regional climate model ICON-CLM coupled to the ocean model NEMO and the hydrological discharge model HD via the OASIS3-MCT coupler can be a useful tool for conducting long-term regional climate simulations over the EURO-CORDEX domain. The new OASIS3-MCT coupling interface implemented in ICON-CLM makes it more flexible for coupling to an external ocean model and an external hydrological discharge model.
Sandro Vattioni, Rahel Weber, Aryeh Feinberg, Andrea Stenke, John A. Dykema, Beiping Luo, Georgios A. Kelesidis, Christian A. Bruun, Timofei Sukhodolov, Frank N. Keutsch, Thomas Peter, and Gabriel Chiodo
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7767–7793, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7767-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7767-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We quantified impacts and efficiency of stratospheric solar climate intervention via solid particle injection. Microphysical interactions of solid particles with the sulfur cycle were interactively coupled to the heterogeneous chemistry scheme and the radiative transfer code of an aerosol–chemistry–climate model. Compared to injection of SO2 we only find a stronger cooling efficiency for solid particles when normalizing to the aerosol load but not when normalizing to the injection rate.
Ingo Richter, Ping Chang, Gokhan Danabasoglu, Dietmar Dommenget, Guillaume Gastineau, Aixue Hu, Takahito Kataoka, Noel Keenlyside, Fred Kucharski, Yuko Okumura, Wonsun Park, Malte Stuecker, Andrea Taschetto, Chunzai Wang, Stephen Yeager, and Sang-Wook Yeh
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3110, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3110, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The tropical ocean basins influence each other through multiple pathways and mechanisms, here referred to as tropical basin interaction (TBI). Many researchers have examined TBI using comprehensive climate models, but have obtained conflicting results. This may be partly due to differences in experiment protocols, and partly due to systematic model errors. TBIMIP aims to address this problem by designing a set of TBI experiments that will be performed by multiple models.
Samuel Rémy, Swen Metzger, Vincent Huijnen, Jason E. Williams, and Johannes Flemming
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7539–7567, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7539-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7539-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we describe the development of the future operational cycle 49R1 of the IFS-COMPO system, used for operational forecasts of atmospheric composition in the CAMS project, and focus on the implementation of the thermodynamical model EQSAM4Clim version 12. The implementation of EQSAM4Clim significantly improves the simulated secondary inorganic aerosol surface concentration. The new aerosol and precipitation acidity diagnostics showed good agreement against observational datasets.
Maximillian Van Wyk de Vries, Tom Matthews, L. Baker Perry, Nirakar Thapa, and Rob Wilby
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7629–7643, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7629-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7629-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper introduces the AtsMOS workflow, a new tool for improving weather forecasts in mountainous areas. By combining advanced statistical techniques with local weather data, AtsMOS can provide more accurate predictions of weather conditions. Using data from Mount Everest as an example, AtsMOS has shown promise in better forecasting hazardous weather conditions, making it a valuable tool for communities in mountainous regions and beyond.
Sofia Allende, Anne Marie Treguier, Camille Lique, Clément de Boyer Montégut, François Massonnet, Thierry Fichefet, and Antoine Barthélemy
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7445–7466, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7445-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7445-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We study the parameters of the turbulent-kinetic-energy mixed-layer-penetration scheme in the NEMO model with regard to sea-ice-covered regions of the Arctic Ocean. This evaluation reveals the impact of these parameters on mixed-layer depth, sea surface temperature and salinity, and ocean stratification. Our findings demonstrate significant impacts on sea ice thickness and sea ice concentration, emphasizing the need for accurately representing ocean mixing to understand Arctic climate dynamics.
Pengfei Shi, L. Ruby Leung, and Bin Wang
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-183, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-183, 2024
Revised manuscript accepted for GMD
Short summary
Short summary
Improving climate predictions has significant socio-economic impacts. In this study, we developed and applied a weakly coupled ocean data assimilation (WCODA) system to a coupled climate model. The WCODA system improves simulations of ocean temperature and salinity across many global regions. It also enhances the simulation of interannual precipitation and temperature variability over the southern US. This system is to support future predictability studies.
Sabin I. Taranu, David M. Lawrence, Yoshihide Wada, Ting Tang, Erik Kluzek, Sam Rabin, Yi Yao, Steven J. De Hertog, Inne Vanderkelen, and Wim Thiery
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7365–7399, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7365-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7365-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we improved a climate model by adding the representation of water use sectors such as domestic, industry, and agriculture. This new feature helps us understand how water is used and supplied in various areas. We tested our model from 1971 to 2010 and found that it accurately identifies areas with water scarcity. By modelling the competition between sectors when water availability is limited, the model helps estimate the intensity and extent of individual sectors' water shortages.
Yucheng Lin, Robert E. Kopp, Alexander Reedy, Matteo Turilli, Shantenu Jha, and Erica L. Ashe
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2183, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2183, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
PaleoSTeHM v1.0-rc is a state-of-the-art framework designed to reconstruct past environmental conditions using geological data. Built on modern machine learning techniques, it efficiently handles the sparse and noisy nature of paleo records, allowing scientists to make accurate and scalable inferences about past environmental change. By using flexible statistical models, PaleoSTeHM separates different sources of uncertainty, improving the precision of historical climate reconstructions.
Florian Börgel, Sven Karsten, Karoline Rummel, and Ulf Gräwe
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2685, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2685, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Forecasting river runoff, crucial for managing water resources and understanding climate impacts, can be challenging. This study introduces a new method using Convolutional Long Short-Term Memory (ConvLSTM) networks, a machine learning model that processes spatial and temporal data. Focusing on the Baltic Sea region, our model uses weather data as input to predict daily river runoff for 97 rivers.
Cited articles
Asplund, M. E., Bonaglia, S., Boström, C., Dahl, M., Deyanova, D., Gagnon, K., Gullström, M., Holmer, M., and Björk, M.: Methane Emissions From Nordic Seagrass Meadow Sediments, Front. Mar. Sci., 8, 811533, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.811533, 2022.
Atkins, M. L., Santos, I. R., and Maher, D. T.: Seasonal exports and drivers of dissolved inorganic and organic carbon, carbon dioxide, methane and δ13C signatures in a subtropical river network, Sci. Total Environ., 575, 545–563, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.020, 2017.
Axell, L. B.: On the variability of Baltic Sea deepwater mixing, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 103, 21667–21682, https://doi.org/10.1029/98JC01714, 1998.
Bange, H. W., Bartell, U. H., Rapsomanikis, S., and Andreae, M. O.: Methane in the Baltic and North Seas and a reassessment of the marine emissions of methane, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 8, 465–480, https://doi.org/10.1029/94GB02181, 1994.
Bayer, T. K., Gustafsson, E., Brakebusch, M., and Beer, C.: Future Carbon Emission From Boreal and Permafrost Lakes Are Sensitive to Catchment Organic Carbon Loads, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 124, 1827–1848, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JG004978, 2019.
Bižić, M., Klintzsch, T., Ionescu, D., Hindiyeh, M. Y., Günthel, M., Muro-Pastor, A. M., Eckert, W., Urich, T., Keppler, F., and Grossart, H.-P.: Aquatic and terrestrial cyanobacteria produce methane, Sci. Adv., 6, eaax5343, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax5343, 2020.
Björk, G.: The relation between ice deformation, oceanic heat flux, and the ice thickness distribution in the Arctic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 102, 18681–18698, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JC00789, 1997.
Borges, A. V., Champenois, W., Gypens, N., Delille, B., and Harlay, J.: Massive marine methane emissions from near-shore shallow coastal areas, Sci. Rep., 6, 27908, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep27908, 2016.
Broman, E., Sun, X., Stranne, C., Salgado, M. G., Bonaglia, S., Geibel, M., Jakobsson, M., Norkko, A., Humborg, C., and Nascimento, F. J. A.: Low Abundance of Methanotrophs in Sediments of Shallow Boreal Coastal Zones With High Water Methane Concentrations, Front. Microbiol., 11, 1536, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01536, 2020.
Carstensen, J., Andersen, J. H., Gustafsson, B. G., and Conley, D. J.: Deoxygenation of the Baltic Sea during the last century, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111, 5628–5633, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1323156111, 2014.
Chan, E. W., Shiller, A. M., Joung, D. J., Arrington, E. C., Valentine, D. L., Redmond, M. C., Breier, J. A., Socolofsky, S. A., and Kessler, J. D.: Investigations of Aerobic Methane Oxidation in Two Marine Seep Environments: Part 1 – Chemical Kinetics, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 8852–8868, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015594, 2019a.
Chan, E. W., Shiller, A. M., Joung, D. J., Arrington, E. C., Valentine, D. L., Redmond, M. C., Breier, J. A., Socolofsky, S. A., and Kessler, J. D.: Investigations of Aerobic Methane Oxidation in Two Marine Seep Environments: Part 2 – Isotopic Kinetics, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 8392–8399, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JC015603, 2019b.
Chuang, P.-C., Yang, T. F., Wallmann, K., Matsumoto, R., Hu, C.-Y., Chen, H.-W., Lin, S., Sun, C.-H., Li, H.-C., Wang, Y., and Dale, A. W.: Carbon isotope exchange during anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) in sediments of the northeastern South China Sea, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 246, 138–155, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2018.11.003, 2019.
Crespo-Medina, M., Meile, C. D., Hunter, K. S., Diercks, A.-R., Asper, V. L., Orphan, V. J., Tavormina, P. L., Nigro, L. M., Battles, J. J., Chanton, J. P., Shiller, A. M., Joung, D.-J., Amon, R. M. W., Bracco, A., Montoya, J. P., Villareal, T. A., Wood, A. M., and Joye, S. B.: The rise and fall of methanotrophy following a deepwater oil-well blowout, Nat. Geosci., 7, 423–427, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2156, 2014.
Damm, E., Helmke, E., Thoms, S., Schauer, U., Nöthig, E., Bakker, K., and Kiene, R. P.: Methane production in aerobic oligotrophic surface water in the central Arctic Ocean, Biogeosciences, 7, 1099–1108, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-1099-2010, 2010.
Dickson, A. G., Sabine, C. L., and Christian, J. R. (Eds.): Guide to best practices for ocean CO2 measurements. PICES Special Publication 3, North Pacific Marine Science Organization, Sidney, BC, 191 pp., 2007.
Egger, M., Hagens, M., Sapart, C. J., Dijkstra, N., van Helmond, N. A. G. M., Mogollón, J. M., Risgaard-Petersen, N., van der Veen, C., Kasten, S., Riedinger, N., Böttcher, M. E., Röckmann, T., Jørgensen, B. B., and Slomp, C. P.: Iron oxide reduction in methane-rich deep Baltic Sea sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 207, 256–276, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2017.03.019, 2017.
Etminan, M., Myhre, G., Highwood, E. J., and Shine, K. P.: Radiative forcing of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide: A significant revision of the methane radiative forcing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 12614–12623, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL071930, 2016.
Ferretti, D. F., Miller, J. B., White, J. W. C., Etheridge, D. M., Lassey, K. R., Lowe, D. C., Meure, C. M. M., Dreier, M. F., Trudinger, C. M., van Ommen, T. D., and Langenfelds, R. L.: Unexpected Changes to the Global Methane Budget over the Past 2000 Years, Science, 309, 1714–1717, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1115193, 2005.
Fuex, A. N.: Experimental evidence against an appreciable isotopic fractionation of methane during migration, Phys. Chem. Earth, 12, 725–732, https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-1946(79)90153-8, 1980.
Graiff, A., Karsten, U., Radtke, H., Wahl, M., and Eggert, A.: Model simulation of seasonal growth of Fucus vesiculosus in its benthic community, Limnol. Oceanogr.-Methods, 18, 89–115, https://doi.org/10.1002/lom3.10351, 2020.
Greene, S., Walter Anthony, K. M., Archer, D., Sepulveda-Jauregui, A., and Martinez-Cruz, K.: Modeling the impediment of methane ebullition bubbles by seasonal lake ice, Biogeosciences, 11, 6791–6811, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-6791-2014, 2014.
Grunwald, M., Dellwig, O., Beck, M., Dippner, J. W., Freund, J. A., Kohlmeier, C., Schnetger, B., and Brumsack, H.-J.: Methane in the southern North Sea: Sources, spatial distribution and budgets, Estuarine, Coast. Shelf Sci., 81, 445–456, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2008.11.021, 2009.
Gu, C., Waldron, S., and Bass, A. M.: Carbon dioxide, methane, and dissolved carbon dynamics in an urbanized river system, Hydrol. Process., 35, e14360, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.14360, 2021.
Gustafsson, B.: A time-dependent coupled-basin model for the Baltic Sea, C47, Göteborg: Earth Sciences Centre, Göteborg University, 2003.
Gustafsson, B. and Gustafsson, E.: BALTSEM with methane model and sample outputs, Baltsem9.5_CH4, Zenodo [code and data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10037197, 2023.
Gustafsson, B. G.: Time-dependent modeling of the Baltic entrance area. 1. Quantification of circulation and residence times in the Kattegat and the Straits of the Baltic sill, Estuaries, 23, 231–252, https://doi.org/10.2307/1352830, 2000.
Gustafsson, B. G., Schenk, F., Blenckner, T., Eilola, K., Meier, H. E. M., Müller-Karulis, B., Neumann, T., Ruoho-Airola, T., Savchuk, O. P., and Zorita, E.: Reconstructing the Development of Baltic Sea Eutrophication 1850–2006, AMBIO, 41, 534–548, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-012-0318-x, 2012.
Gustafsson, E. and Gustafsson, B. G.: Future acidification of the Baltic Sea – A sensitivity study, J. Marine Syst., 211, 103397, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2020.103397, 2020.
Gustafsson, E., Deutsch, B., Gustafsson, B. G., Humborg, C., and Mörth, C.-M.: Carbon cycling in the Baltic Sea – The fate of allochthonous organic carbon and its impact on air–sea CO2 exchange, J. Marine Syst., 129, 289–302, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2013.07.005, 2014.
Gustafsson, E., Mörth, C.-M., Humborg, C., and Gustafsson, B. G.: Modelling the 13C and 12C isotopes of inorganic and organic carbon in the Baltic Sea, J. Marine Syst., 148, 122–130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.02.008, 2015.
Gustafsson, E., Savchuk, O. P., Gustafsson, B. G., and Müller-Karulis, B.: Key processes in the coupled carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling of the Baltic Sea, Biogeochemistry, 134, 301–317, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-017-0361-6, 2017.
Gülzow, W., Rehder, G., Schneider v. Deimling, J., Seifert, T., and Tóth, Z.: One year of continuous measurements constraining methane emissions from the Baltic Sea to the atmosphere using a ship of opportunity, Biogeosciences, 10, 81–99, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-81-2013, 2013.
Gülzow, W., Gräwe, U., Kedzior, S., Schmale, O., and Rehder, G.: Seasonal variation of methane in the water column of Arkona and Bornholm Basin, western Baltic Sea, J. Marine Syst., 139, 332–347, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2014.07.013, 2014.
Hansson, M. and Viktorsson, L.: Oxygen Survey in the Baltic Sea 2022 – Extent of Anoxia and Hypoxia, 1960–2022, SMHI, Göteborg, 2023.
Happell, J. D., Chanton, J. P., and Showers, W. J.: Methane transfer across the water-air interface in stagnant wooded swamps of Florida: Evaluation of mass-transfer coefficients and isotropic fractionation, Limnol. Oceanogr., 40, 290–298, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1995.40.2.0290, 1995.
HELCOM: HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan – 2021 update, http://helcom.fi (last access: 23 September 2024), 2021.
Hermans, M., Stranne, C., Broman, E., Sokolov, A., Roth, F., Nascimento, F. J. A., Mörth, C.-M., ten Hietbrink, S., Sun, X., Gustafsson, E., Gustafsson, B. G., Norkko, A., Jilbert, T., and Humborg, C.: Ebullition dominates methane emissions in stratified coastal waters, Sci. Total Environ., 945, 174183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174183, 2024.
Hoehler, T. M., Alperin, M. J., Albert, D. B., and Martens, C. S.: Field and laboratory studies of methane oxidation in an anoxic marine sediment: Evidence for a methanogen-sulfate reducer consortium, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 8, 451–463, https://doi.org/10.1029/94GB01800, 1994.
Hoffman, D. W. and Rasmussen, C.: Absolute Carbon Stable Isotope Ratio in the Vienna Peedee Belemnite Isotope Reference Determined by 1H NMR Spectroscopy, Anal. Chem., 94, 5240–5247, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04565, 2022.
Holmes, M. E., Sansone, F. J., Rust, T. M., and Popp, B. N.: Methane production, consumption, and air-sea exchange in the open ocean: An Evaluation based on carbon isotopic ratios, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GB001209, 2000.
Humborg, C., Geibel, Marc. C., Sun, X., McCrackin, M., Mörth, C.-M., Stranne, C., Jakobsson, M., Gustafsson, B., Sokolov, A., Norkko, A., and Norkko, J.: High Emissions of Carbon Dioxide and Methane From the Coastal Baltic Sea at the End of a Summer Heat Wave, Front. Marine Sci., 6, 493, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00493, 2019.
Jakobs, G., Rehder, G., Jost, G., Kießlich, K., Labrenz, M., and Schmale, O.: Comparative studies of pelagic microbial methane oxidation within the redox zones of the Gotland Deep and Landsort Deep (central Baltic Sea), Biogeosciences, 10, 7863–7875, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-7863-2013, 2013.
Jakobs, G., Holtermann, P., Berndmeyer, C., Rehder, G., Blumenberg, M., Jost, G., Nausch, G., and Schmale, O.: Seasonal and spatial methane dynamics in the water column of the central Baltic Sea (Gotland Sea), Cont. Shelf Res., 91, 12–25, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2014.07.005, 2014.
Jørgensen, B. B., Bang, M., and Blackburn, T.: Anaerobic mineralization in marine sediments from the Baltic Sea-North Sea transition, Marine Ecol. Prog. Ser., 59, 39–54, 1990.
Karl, D. M. and Tilbrook, B. D.: Production and transport of methane in oceanic particulate organic matter, Nature, 368, 732–734, https://doi.org/10.1038/368732a0, 1994.
Karl, D. M., Beversdorf, L., Björkman, K. M., Church, M. J., Martinez, A., and Delong, E. F.: Aerobic production of methane in the sea, Nat. Geosci., 1, 473–478, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo234, 2008.
Kessler, J. D., Valentine, D. L., Redmond, M. C., Du, M., Chan, E. W., Mendes, S. D., Quiroz, E. W., Villanueva, C. J., Shusta, S. S., Werra, L. M., Yvon-Lewis, S. A., and Weber, T. C.: A Persistent Oxygen Anomaly Reveals the Fate of Spilled Methane in the Deep Gulf of Mexico, Science, 331, 312–315, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199697, 2011.
Ketzer, M., Stranne, C., Rahmati-Abkenar, M., Shahabi-Ghahfarokhi, S., Jaeger, L., Pivel, M. A. G., Josefsson, S., and Zillén, L.: Near seafloor methane flux in the world's largest human-induced dead zone is regulated by sediment accumulation rate, Marine Geol., 468, 107220, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2024.107220, 2024.
Knox, M., Quay, P. D., and Wilbur, D.: Kinetic isotopic fractionation during air-water gas transfer of O2, N2, CH4, and H2, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 97, 20335–20343, https://doi.org/10.1029/92JC00949, 1992.
Kremling, K.: Untersuchungen Über die chemische Zusammensetzung des Meerwassers aus der Ostsee, III. Früjahr 1969–Herbst 1970, Kiel. Meeresforsch., 28, 99–118, https://oceanrep.geomar.de/id/eprint/54305/ (last access: 23 September 2024), 1972.
Kuliński, K., Rehder, G., Asmala, E., Bartosova, A., Carstensen, J., Gustafsson, B., Hall, P. O. J., Humborg, C., Jilbert, T., Jürgens, K., Meier, H. E. M., Müller-Karulis, B., Naumann, M., Olesen, J. E., Savchuk, O., Schramm, A., Slomp, C. P., Sofiev, M., Sobek, A., Szymczycha, B., and Undeman, E.: Biogeochemical functioning of the Baltic Sea, Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 633–685, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, 2022.
Lan, X., Basu, S., Schwietzke, S., Bruhwiler, L. M. P., Dlugokencky, E. J., Michel, S. E., Sherwood, O. A., Tans, P. P., Thoning, K., Etiope, G., Zhuang, Q., Liu, L., Oh, Y., Miller, J. B., Pétron, G., Vaughn, B. H., and Crippa, M.: Improved Constraints on Global Methane Emissions and Sinks Using δ13C-CH4, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 35, e2021GB007000, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GB007000, 2021.
Lappalainen, J., Virtanen, E. A., Kallio, K., Junttila, S., and Viitasalo, M.: Substrate limitation of a habitat-forming genus Fucus under different water clarity scenarios in the northern Baltic Sea, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 218, 31–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2018.11.010, 2019.
Lehoux, A. P., Isidorova, A., Collin, F., Koestel, J., Snowball, I., and Dahlberg, A.-K.: Extreme gas production in anthropogenic fibrous sediments: An overlooked biogenic source of greenhouse gas emissions, Sci. Total Environ., 781, 146772, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146772, 2021.
Lenhart, K., Klintzsch, T., Langer, G., Nehrke, G., Bunge, M., Schnell, S., and Keppler, F.: Evidence for methane production by the marine algae Emiliania huxleyi, Biogeosciences, 13, 3163–3174, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-3163-2016, 2016.
Lohrberg, A., Schmale, O., Ostrovsky, I., Niemann, H., Held, P., and Schneider von Deimling, J.: Discovery and quantification of a widespread methane ebullition event in a coastal inlet (Baltic Sea) using a novel sonar strategy, Sci. Rep., 10, 4393, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60283-0, 2020.
Lopes, F., Viollier, E., Thiam, A., Michard, G., Abril, G., Groleau, A., Prévot, F., Carrias, J.-F., Albéric, P., and Jézéquel, D.: Biogeochemical modelling of anaerobic vs. aerobic methane oxidation in a meromictic crater lake (Lake Pavin, France), Appl. Geochem., 26, 1919–1932, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.06.021, 2011.
Lundevall-Zara, M., Lundevall-Zara, E., and Brüchert, V.: Sea-Air Exchange of Methane in Shallow Inshore Areas of the Baltic Sea, Front. Marine Sci., 8, 657459, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.657459, 2021.
Malakhova, V. and Golubeva, E.: Model Study of the Effects of Climate Change on the Methane Emissions on the Arctic Shelves, Atmosphere, 13, 274, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020274, 2022.
Martinez-Cruz, K., Sepulveda-Jauregui, A., Walter Anthony, K., and Thalasso, F.: Geographic and seasonal variation of dissolved methane and aerobic methane oxidation in Alaskan lakes, Biogeosciences, 12, 4595–4606, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-4595-2015, 2015.
Myllykangas, J.-P., Jilbert, T., Jakobs, G., Rehder, G., Werner, J., and Hietanen, S.: Effects of the 2014 major Baltic inflow on methane and nitrous oxide dynamics in the water column of the central Baltic Sea, Earth Syst. Dynam., 8, 817–826, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-8-817-2017, 2017.
Myllykangas, J.-P., Rissanen, A. J., Hietanen, S., and Jilbert, T.: Influence of electron acceptor availability and microbial community structure on sedimentary methane oxidation in a boreal estuary, Biogeochemistry, 148, 291–309, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-020-00660-z, 2020.
Nihous, G. C. and Masutani, S. M.: A model of methane concentration profiles in the open ocean, J. Mar. Res., 64, 629–650, https://doi.org/10.1357/002224006778715748, 2006.
Nohr, C., Björk, G., and Gustafsson, B. G.: A dynamic sea ice model based on the formation direction of leads, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 58, 36–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2009.04.005, 2009.
Osudar, R., Matoušů, A., Alawi, M., Wagner, D., and Bussmann, I.: Environmental factors affecting methane distribution and bacterial methane oxidation in the German Bight (North Sea), Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 160, 10–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2015.03.028, 2015.
Pack, M. A., Heintz, M. B., Reeburgh, W. S., Trumbore, S. E., Valentine, D. L., Xu, X., and Druffel, E. R. M.: Methane oxidation in the eastern tropical North Pacific Ocean water column, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 120, 1078–1092, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JG002900, 2015.
Quay, P. D., King, S. L., Lansdown, J. M., and Wilbur, D. O.: Isotopic composition of methane released from wetlands: Implications for the increase in atmospheric methane, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 2, 385–397, https://doi.org/10.1029/GB002i004p00385, 1988.
Reeburgh, W. S.: Oceanic Methane Biogeochemistry, Chem. Rev., 107, 486–513, https://doi.org/10.1021/cr050362v, 2007.
Rehder, G., Keir, R. S., Suess, E., and Pohlmann, T.: The Multiple Sources and Patterns of Methane inNorth Sea Waters, Aquat. Geochem., 4, 403–427, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009644600833, 1998.
Resplandy, L., Hogikyan, A., Müller, J. D., Najjar, R. G., Bange, H. W., Bianchi, D., Weber, T., Cai, W.-J., Doney, S. C., Fennel, K., Gehlen, M., Hauck, J., Lacroix, F., Landschützer, P., Le Quéré, C., Roobaert, A., Schwinger, J., Berthet, S., Bopp, L., Chau, T. T. T., Dai, M., Gruber, N., Ilyina, T., Kock, A., Manizza, M., Lachkar, Z., Laruelle, G. G., Liao, E., Lima, I. D., Nissen, C., Rödenbeck, C., Séférian, R., Toyama, K., Tsujino, H., and Regnier, P.: A Synthesis of Global Coastal Ocean Greenhouse Gas Fluxes, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 38, e2023GB007803, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GB007803, 2024.
Rogener, M. K., Bracco, A., Hunter, K. S., Saxton, M. A., and Joye, S. B.: Long-term impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil well blowout on methane oxidation dynamics in the northern Gulf of Mexico, Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 6, 73, https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.332, 2018.
Rosentreter, J. A., Borges, A. V., Deemer, B. R., Holgerson, M. A., Liu, S., Song, C., Melack, J., Raymond, P. A., Duarte, C. M., Allen, G. H., Olefeldt, D., Poulter, B., Battin, T. I., and Eyre, B. D.: Half of global methane emissions come from highly variable aquatic ecosystem sources, Nat. Geosci., 14, 225–230, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00715-2, 2021.
Roth, F., Sun, X., Geibel, M. C., Prytherch, J., Brüchert, V., Bonaglia, S., Broman, E., Nascimento, F., Norkko, A., and Humborg, C.: High spatiotemporal variability of methane concentrations challenges estimates of emissions across vegetated coastal ecosystems, Global Change Biol., 28, 4308–4322, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16177, 2022.
Roth, F., Broman, E., Sun, X., Bonaglia, S., Nascimento, F., Prytherch, J., Brüchert, V., Lundevall Zara, M., Brunberg, M., Geibel, M. C., Humborg, C., and Norkko, A.: Methane emissions offset atmospheric carbon dioxide uptake in coastal macroalgae, mixed vegetation and sediment ecosystems, Nat. Commun., 14, 42, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35673-9, 2023.
Savchuk, O. P.: Nutrient biogeochemical cycles in the Gulf of Riga: scaling up field studies with a mathematical model, J. Marine Syst., 32, 253–280, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(02)00039-8, 2002.
Savchuk, O. P., Gustafsson, B. G., and Müller-Karulis, B.: BALTSEM – a marine model for the decision support within the Baltic Sea Region (Technical Report No. 7), BNI Technical Report Series, 2012.
Schmale, O., Schneider von Deimling, J., Gülzow, W., Nausch, G., Waniek, J. J., and Rehder, G.: Distribution of methane in the water column of the Baltic Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L12604, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL043115, 2010.
Schmale, O., Blumenberg, M., Kießlich, K., Jakobs, G., Berndmeyer, C., Labrenz, M., Thiel, V., and Rehder, G.: Aerobic methanotrophy within the pelagic redox-zone of the Gotland Deep (central Baltic Sea), Biogeosciences, 9, 4969–4977, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-4969-2012, 2012.
Schmale, O., Krause, S., Holtermann, P., Power Guerra, N. C., and Umlauf, L.: Dense bottom gravity currents and their impact on pelagic methanotrophy at oxic/anoxic transition zones, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 5225–5232, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069032, 2016.
Schmale, O., Wäge, J., Mohrholz, V., Wasmund, N., Gräwe, U., Rehder, G., Labrenz, M., and Loick-Wilde, N.: The contribution of zooplankton to methane supersaturation in the oxygenated upper waters of the central Baltic Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr., 63, 412–430, https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.10640, 2018.
Scranton, M. I. and McShane, K.: Methane fluxes in the southern North Sea: the role of European rivers, Cont. Shelf Res., 11, 37–52, https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4343(91)90033-3, 1991.
Segers, R.: Methane production and methane consumption: a review of processes underlying wetland methane fluxes, Biogeochemistry, 41, 23–51, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005929032764, 1998.
Slomp, C. P., Mort, H. P., Jilbert, T., Reed, D. C., Gustafsson, B. G., and Wolthers, M.: Coupled Dynamics of Iron and Phosphorus in Sediments of an Oligotrophic Coastal Basin and the Impact of Anaerobic Oxidation of Methane, PLOS ONE, 8, e62386, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062386, 2013.
Stawiarski, B., Otto, S., Thiel, V., Gräwe, U., Loick-Wilde, N., Wittenborn, A. K., Schloemer, S., Wäge, J., Rehder, G., Labrenz, M., Wasmund, N., and Schmale, O.: Controls on zooplankton methane production in the central Baltic Sea, Biogeosciences, 16, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-1-2019, 2019.
Stepanenko, V., Mammarella, I., Ojala, A., Miettinen, H., Lykosov, V., and Vesala, T.: LAKE 2.0: a model for temperature, methane, carbon dioxide and oxygen dynamics in lakes, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1977–2006, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1977-2016, 2016.
Stigebrandt, A.: A Model for the Seasonal Pycnocline in Rotating Systems with Application to the Baltic Proper, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 15, 1392–1404, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1985)015<1392:AMFTSP>2.0.CO;2, 1985.
Stigebrandt, A.: A Model for the Vertial Circulation of the Baltic Deep Water, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 17, 1772–1785, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1987)017<1772:AMFTVC>2.0.CO;2, 1987.
Stigebrandt, A. and Gustafsson, B. G.: Response of the Baltic Sea to climate change – theory and observations, J. Sea Res., 49, 243–256, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-1101(03)00021-2, 2003.
Tan, Z., Zhuang, Q., and Walter Anthony, K.: Modeling methane emissions from arctic lakes: Model development and site-level study, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 7, 459–483, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014MS000344, 2015.
Upstill-Goddard, R. C., Barnes, J., Frost, T., Punshon, S., and Owens, N. J. P.: Methane in the southern North Sea: Low-salinity inputs, estuarine removal, and atmospheric flux, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 1205–1217, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GB001236, 2000.
Van Bodegom, P., Goudriaan, J., and Leffelaar, P.: A mechanistic model on methane oxidation in a rice rhizosphere, Biogeochemistry, 55, 145–177, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010640515283, 2001.
Wåhlström, I. and Meier, H. E. M.: A model sensitivity study for the sea–air exchange of methane in the Laptev Sea, Arctic Ocean, Tellus B, 66, 24174, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v66.24174, 2014.
Wallin, M. B., Campeau, A., Audet, J., Bastviken, D., Bishop, K., Kokic, J., Laudon, H., Lundin, E., Löfgren, S., Natchimuthu, S., Sobek, S., Teutschbein, C., Weyhenmeyer, G. A., and Grabs, T.: Carbon dioxide and methane emissions of Swedish low-order streams – a national estimate and lessons learnt from more than a decade of observations, Limnol. Oceanogr. Lett., 3, 156–167, https://doi.org/10.1002/lol2.10061, 2018.
Wanninkhof, R.: Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean revisited, Limnol. Oceanogr.-Methods, 12, 351–362, https://doi.org/10.4319/lom.2014.12.351, 2014.
Weber, T., Wiseman, N. A., and Kock, A.: Global ocean methane emissions dominated by shallow coastal waters, Nat. Commun., 10, 4584, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12541-7, 2019.
Whiticar, M. J.: Carbon and hydrogen isotope systematics of bacterial formation and oxidation of methane, Chem. Geol., 161, 291–314, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00092-3, 1999.
Whiticar, M. J., Faber, E., and Schoell, M.: Biogenic methane formation in marine and freshwater environments: CO2 reduction vs. acetate fermentation – Isotope evidence, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 50, 693–709, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(86)90346-7, 1986.
Wiesenburg, D. A. and Guinasso, N. L.: Equilibrium solubilities of methane, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen in water and sea water, J. Chem. Eng. Data, 24, 356–360, https://doi.org/10.1021/je60083a006, 1979.
Zeebe, R. E. and Wolf-Gladrow, D.: CO2 in seawater: equilibrium, kinetics, isotopes. Elsevier Oceanography Series. Amsterdam, Elsevier Science, B.V. 346 pp., 2001.
Short summary
Methane (CH4) cycling in the Baltic Proper is studied through model simulations, enabling a first estimate of key CH4 fluxes. A preliminary budget identifies benthic CH4 release as the dominant source and two main sinks: CH4 oxidation in the water (92 % of sinks) and outgassing to the atmosphere (8 % of sinks). This study addresses CH4 emissions from coastal seas and is a first step toward understanding the relative importance of open-water outgassing compared with local coastal hotspots.
Methane (CH4) cycling in the Baltic Proper is studied through model simulations, enabling a...