Articles | Volume 19, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-261-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-19-261-2026
© Author(s) 2026. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
SWIIFT v0.10: a numerical model of wave-induced sea ice breakup with an energy criterion
Nicolas Guillaume Alexandre Mokus
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, ISTerre, Grenoble, France
Véronique Dansereau
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, ISTerre, Grenoble, France
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, IGE, 38000 Grenoble, France
Guillaume Boutin
Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bergen, Norway
Jean-Pierre Auclair
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, ISTerre, Grenoble, France
now at: Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Cartagena, 30203 Cartagena, Spain
Alexandre Tlili
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, Grenoble INP, ISTerre, Grenoble, France
now at: Université Paris–Saclay, CNRS, CEA, Service de Physique de l'État Condensé, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Sébastien Kuchly, Baptiste Auvity, Nicolas Mokus, Matilde Bureau, Paul Nicot, Amaury Fourgeaud, Véronique Dansereau, Antonin Eddi, Stéphane Perrard, Dany Dumont, and Ludovic Moreau
The Cryosphere, 19, 6927–6941, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6927-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6927-2025, 2025
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During February and March 2024, we realized a multi-instrument field campaign in the St. Lawrence Estuary, to capture swell-driven sea ice fragmentation. The dataset combines geophones, wave buoys, smartphones, and video recordings with drones, to study wave-ice interactions under natural conditions. It enables analysis of ice thickness, wave properties, and ice motion. Preliminary results show strong consistency across instruments, offering a valuable resource to improve sea ice models.
Nicolas Guillaume Alexandre Mokus and Fabien Montiel
The Cryosphere, 16, 4447–4472, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4447-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4447-2022, 2022
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On the fringes of polar oceans, sea ice is easily broken by waves. As small pieces of ice, or floes, are more easily melted by the warming waters than a continuous ice cover, it is important to incorporate these floe sizes in climate models. These models simulate climate evolution at the century scale and are built by combining specialised modules. We study the statistical distribution of floe sizes under the impact of waves to better understand how to connect sea ice modules to wave modules.
Sébastien Kuchly, Baptiste Auvity, Nicolas Mokus, Matilde Bureau, Paul Nicot, Amaury Fourgeaud, Véronique Dansereau, Antonin Eddi, Stéphane Perrard, Dany Dumont, and Ludovic Moreau
The Cryosphere, 19, 6927–6941, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6927-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6927-2025, 2025
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During February and March 2024, we realized a multi-instrument field campaign in the St. Lawrence Estuary, to capture swell-driven sea ice fragmentation. The dataset combines geophones, wave buoys, smartphones, and video recordings with drones, to study wave-ice interactions under natural conditions. It enables analysis of ice thickness, wave properties, and ice motion. Preliminary results show strong consistency across instruments, offering a valuable resource to improve sea ice models.
Aikaterini Tavri, Chris Horvat, Brodie Pearson, Guillaume Boutin, Anne Hansen, and Ara Lee
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3438, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3438, 2025
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In the Arctic, thin sea ice lets ocean waves travel into ice-covered areas. When waves, wind, and currents interact, they create Langmuir turbulence—strong mixing near the surface that helps move heat, gases, and nutrients between the ocean and air. Scientists understand this process in open water, but not well in polar regions. This study uses a new wave–ice model to find out where and how Langmuir turbulence affects ocean mixing in the Arctic.
Einar Ólason, Guillaume Boutin, Timothy Williams, Anton Korosov, Heather Regan, Jonathan Rheinlænder, Pierre Rampal, Daniela Flocco, Abdoulaye Samaké, Richard Davy, Timothy Spain, and Sean Chua
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3521, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3521, 2025
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This paper introduces a new version of the neXtSIM sea-ice model. NeXtSIM is unique among sea-ice models in how it represents sea-ice dynamics, focusing on features such as cracks and ridges and how these impact interactions between the atmosphere and ocean where sea ice is present. The new version introduces some physical parameterisations and model options detailed and explained in the paper. Following the paper's publication, the neXtSIM code will be released publicly for the first time.
Laurent Brodeau, Pierre Rampal, Einar Ólason, and Véronique Dansereau
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6051–6082, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6051-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6051-2024, 2024
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A new brittle sea ice rheology, BBM, has been implemented into the sea ice component of NEMO. We describe how a new spatial discretization framework was introduced to achieve this. A set of idealized and realistic ocean and sea ice simulations of the Arctic have been performed using BBM and the standard viscous–plastic rheology of NEMO. When compared to satellite data, our simulations show that our implementation of BBM leads to a fairly good representation of sea ice deformations.
Yumeng Chen, Polly Smith, Alberto Carrassi, Ivo Pasmans, Laurent Bertino, Marc Bocquet, Tobias Sebastian Finn, Pierre Rampal, and Véronique Dansereau
The Cryosphere, 18, 2381–2406, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2381-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-2381-2024, 2024
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We explore multivariate state and parameter estimation using a data assimilation approach through idealised simulations in a dynamics-only sea-ice model based on novel rheology. We identify various potential issues that can arise in complex operational sea-ice models when model parameters are estimated. Even though further investigation will be needed for such complex sea-ice models, we show possibilities of improving the observed and the unobserved model state forecast and parameter accuracy.
Charlotte Durand, Tobias Sebastian Finn, Alban Farchi, Marc Bocquet, Guillaume Boutin, and Einar Ólason
The Cryosphere, 18, 1791–1815, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1791-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1791-2024, 2024
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This paper focuses on predicting Arctic-wide sea-ice thickness using surrogate modeling with deep learning. The model has a predictive power of 12 h up to 6 months. For this forecast horizon, persistence and daily climatology are systematically outperformed, a result of learned thermodynamics and advection. Consequently, surrogate modeling with deep learning proves to be effective at capturing the complex behavior of sea ice.
Tobias Sebastian Finn, Charlotte Durand, Alban Farchi, Marc Bocquet, Yumeng Chen, Alberto Carrassi, and Véronique Dansereau
The Cryosphere, 17, 2965–2991, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2965-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2965-2023, 2023
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We combine deep learning with a regional sea-ice model to correct model errors in the sea-ice dynamics of low-resolution forecasts towards high-resolution simulations. The combined model improves the forecast by up to 75 % and thereby surpasses the performance of persistence. As the error connection can additionally be used to analyse the shortcomings of the forecasts, this study highlights the potential of combined modelling for short-term sea-ice forecasting.
Thomas Richter, Véronique Dansereau, Christian Lessig, and Piotr Minakowski
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3907–3926, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3907-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3907-2023, 2023
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Sea ice covers not only the pole regions but affects the weather and climate globally. For example, its white surface reflects more sunlight than land. The oceans around the poles are therefore kept cool, which affects the circulation in the oceans worldwide. Simulating the behavior and changes in sea ice on a computer is, however, very difficult. We propose a new computer simulation that better models how cracks in the ice change over time and show this by comparing to other simulations.
Heather Regan, Pierre Rampal, Einar Ólason, Guillaume Boutin, and Anton Korosov
The Cryosphere, 17, 1873–1893, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1873-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-1873-2023, 2023
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Multiyear ice (MYI), sea ice that survives the summer, is more resistant to changes than younger ice in the Arctic, so it is a good indicator of sea ice resilience. We use a model with a new way of tracking MYI to assess the contribution of different processes affecting MYI. We find two important years for MYI decline: 2007, when dynamics are important, and 2012, when melt is important. These affect MYI volume and area in different ways, which is important for the interpretation of observations.
Guillaume Boutin, Einar Ólason, Pierre Rampal, Heather Regan, Camille Lique, Claude Talandier, Laurent Brodeau, and Robert Ricker
The Cryosphere, 17, 617–638, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-617-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-617-2023, 2023
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Sea ice cover in the Arctic is full of cracks, which we call leads. We suspect that these leads play a role for atmosphere–ocean interactions in polar regions, but their importance remains challenging to estimate. We use a new ocean–sea ice model with an original way of representing sea ice dynamics to estimate their impact on winter sea ice production. This model successfully represents sea ice evolution from 2000 to 2018, and we find that about 30 % of ice production takes place in leads.
Nicolas Guillaume Alexandre Mokus and Fabien Montiel
The Cryosphere, 16, 4447–4472, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4447-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4447-2022, 2022
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On the fringes of polar oceans, sea ice is easily broken by waves. As small pieces of ice, or floes, are more easily melted by the warming waters than a continuous ice cover, it is important to incorporate these floe sizes in climate models. These models simulate climate evolution at the century scale and are built by combining specialised modules. We study the statistical distribution of floe sizes under the impact of waves to better understand how to connect sea ice modules to wave modules.
Einar Ólason, Pierre Rampal, and Véronique Dansereau
The Cryosphere, 15, 1053–1064, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1053-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1053-2021, 2021
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We analyse the fractal properties observed in the pattern of the long, narrow openings that form in Arctic sea ice known as leads. We use statistical tools to explore the fractal properties of the lead fraction observed in satellite data and show that our sea-ice model neXtSIM displays the same behaviour. Building on this result we then show that the pattern of heat loss from ocean to atmosphere in the model displays similar fractal properties, stemming from the fractal properties of the leads.
Guillaume Boutin, Timothy Williams, Pierre Rampal, Einar Olason, and Camille Lique
The Cryosphere, 15, 431–457, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-431-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-431-2021, 2021
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In this study, we investigate the interactions of surface ocean waves with sea ice. We focus on the evolution of sea ice after it has been fragmented by the waves. Fragmented sea ice is expected to experience less resistance to deformation. We reproduce this evolution using a new coupling framework between a wave model and the recently developed sea ice model neXtSIM. We find that waves can significantly increase the mobility of compact sea ice over wide areas in the wake of storm events.
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Williams, T. D., Rampal, P., and Bouillon, S.: Wave–ice interactions in the neXtSIM sea-ice model, The Cryosphere, 11, 2117–2135, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2117-2017, 2017. a
Womack, A., Vichi, M., Alberello, A., and Toffoli, A.: Atmospheric drivers of a winter-to-spring Lagrangian sea-ice drift in the Eastern Antarctic marginal ice zone, Journal of Glaciology, 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2022.14, 2022. a
Yang, C.-Y., Liu, J., and Chen, D.: Understanding the influence of ocean waves on Arctic sea ice simulation: a modeling study with an atmosphere–ocean–wave–sea ice coupled model, The Cryosphere, 18, 1215–1239, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-1215-2024, 2024. a
Yu, J., Rogers, W. E., and Wang, D. W.: A new method for parameterization of wave dissipation by sea ice, Cold Regions Science and Technology, 199, 103582, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103582, 2022. a
Zhang, C. and Zhao, X.: Theoretical model for predicting the break-up of ice covers due to wave–ice interaction, Applied Ocean Research, 112, 102614, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2021.102614, 2021. a
Short summary
Arctic sea ice recedes, and is thus more exposed to waves, which can fracture continuous pack ice into smaller floes. These are more mobile and easier to melt. Ice fracture itself is not well understood, because of harsh field conditions. We propose a novel criterion parametrising this process, and incorporate it into a numerical model that simulates wave propagation. This criterion can be compared to existing ones. We relate our results to lab experiments, and find qualitative agreement.
Arctic sea ice recedes, and is thus more exposed to waves, which can fracture continuous pack...