Articles | Volume 18, issue 7
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2161-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-2161-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Model description paper
| 
08 Apr 2025
Model description paper |
| 08 Apr 2025
| 08 Apr 2025
Presentation, calibration and testing of the DCESS II Earth system model of intermediate complexity (version 1.0)
Esteban Fernández Villanueva
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Graduate Program in Oceanography, Department of Oceanography, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Oceanography, University of Concepción, P.O. Box 160-C, Concepción, Chile
Gary Shaffer
Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
Cited articles
Aagaard, K., Coachman, L. K., and Carmack, E.: On the halocline of the Arctic Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 28, 529–545, https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(81)90115-1, 1981.
Amante, C. and Eakins, B. W.: ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis, NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/etopo-global-relief-model (last access: 30 May 2019), 2009.
Antoine, D. and Morel, A.: Modelling the seasonal course of the upper ocean pCO2 (I). Development of a one-dimensional model, Tellus B, 47, 103–121, https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.47.issue1.11.x, 1995.
Archer, D. E.: An atlas of the distribution of calcium carbonate in sediments of the deep sea, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 10, 159–174, https://doi.org/10.1029/95GB03016, 1996.
Archer, D. E., Morford, J. L., and Emerson, S. R.: A model of suboxic sedimentary diagenesis suitable for automatic tuning and gridded global domains, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 16, 17-1–17-21, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GB001288, 2002.
Baines, P. G.: Mixing regimes for the flow of dense fluid down slopes into stratified environments, J. Fluid Mech., 538, 245–267, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112005005434, 2005.
Baines, P. G.: Mixing in Downslope Flows in the Ocean - Plumes versus Gravity Currents, Atmos-Ocean, 46, 405–419, https://doi.org/10.3137/ao.460402, 2008.
Bendtsen, J.: Climate sensitivity to changes in solar insolation in a simple coupled climate model, Clim. Dynam., 18, 595–609, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-001-0198-4, 2002.
Bendtsen, J., Hilligsoe, K. M., Hansen, J. L. S., and Richardson, K.: Analysis of remineralisation, lability, temperature sensitivity and structural composition of organic matter from the upper ocean, Prog. Oceanogr., 130, 125–145, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2014.10.009, 2015.
Berelson, W. M., Balch, W. M., Najjar, R., Feely, R. A., Sabine, C., and Lee, K.: Relating estimates of CaCO3 production, export, and dissolution in the water column to measurements of CaCO3 rain into sediment traps and dissolution on the sea floor: A revised global carbonate budget, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 21, GB1024, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006gb002803, 2007.
Berger, A. and Loutre, M. F.: Insolation values for the climate of the last 10 million years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 10, 297–317, https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(91)90033-Q, 1991.
Berner, R. A.: Burial of organic carbon and pyrite sulfur in the modern ocean; its geochemical and environmental significance, Am. J. Sci., 282, 451–473, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.282.4.451, 1982.
Berner, R. A.: A model for atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time, Am. J. Sci., 291, 339–376, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.291.4.339, 1991.
Berner, R. A.: Chemical weathering and its effect on atmospheric CO2 and climate, in: Chemical Weathering Rates of Silicate Minerals, edited by: White, A. F. and Brantley, S. L., De Gruyter, Berlin, Boston, 565–584, https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501509650-015, 1995.
Berner, R. A.: GEOCARBSULF: A combined model for Phanerozoic atmospheric O2 and CO2, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 70, 5653–5664, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2005.11.032, 2006.
Bigg, G. R. and Rohling, E. J.: An oxygen isotope data set for marine water, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 8527–8535, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JC900005, 2000.
Bonan, G. B.: Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests, Science, 320, 1444–1449, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121, 2008.
Boyer, T. P., García, H. E., Locarnini, R. A., Zweng, M. M., Mishonov, A. V., Reagan, J. R., Weathers, K. A., Baranova, O. K., Paver, C. R., Seidov, D., and Smolyar, I. V.: World Ocean Atlas 2018, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information [data set], https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/archive/accession/NCEI-WOA18 (last access: 23 August 2023), 2018.
Budyko, M. I.: Effect of Solar Radiation Variations on Climate of Earth, Tellus, 21, 611–619, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109, 1969.
Byrne, B. and Goldblatt, C.: Radiative forcing at high concentrations of well- mixed greenhouse gases, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 152–160, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013gl058456, 2014.
Cartapanis, O., Galbraith, E. D., Bianchi, D., and Jaccard, S. L.: Carbon burial in deep-sea sediment and implications for oceanic inventories of carbon and alkalinity over the last glacial cycle, Clim. Past, 14, 1819–1850, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-1819-2018, 2018.
Chapin III, S. F., Matson, P. A., and Vitousek, P.: Principles of terrestrial ecosystem ecology, Springer, New York, NY, USA, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9504-9, 2011.
Chen, J. J., Swart, N. C., Beadling, R., Cheng, X., Hattermann, T., Jüling, A., Li, Q., Marshall, J., Martin, T., Muilwijk, M., Pauling, A. G., Purich, A., Smith, I. J., and Thomas, M.: Reduced deep convection and bottom water formation due to Antarctic meltwater in a multi-model ensemble, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2023GL106492, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023gl106492, 2023.
CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology (Australia): Cape Grim Greenhouse Gas Data, CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology [data set], https://capegrim.csiro.au/GreenhouseGas/data/CapeGrim_CO2_data_download.csv, last access: 29 September 2023.
Dai, A. and Trenberth, K. E.: Estimates of Freshwater Discharge from Continents: Latitudinal and Seasonal Variations, J. Hydrometeorol., 3, 660–687, https://doi.org/10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0660:EOFDFC>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Danabasoglu, G., Large, W. G., and Briegleb, B. P.: Climate impacts of parameterized Nordic Sea overflows, J. Geophys. Res., 115, C11005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006243, 2010.
DeConto, R. M. and Pollard, D.: Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise, Nature, 531, 591–597, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17145, 2016.
Dey, D. and Döös, K.: Atmospheric Freshwater Transport From the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean: A Lagrangian Analysis, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2019GL086176, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086176, 2020.
d'Orgeville, M., Sijp, W. P., England, M. H., and Meissner, K. J.: On the control of glacial-interglacial atmospheric CO2 variations by the Southern Hemisphere westerlies, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L21703, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010gl045261, 2010.
Drever, J. I.: The effect of land plants on weathering rates of silicate minerals, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 58, 2325–2332, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90013-2, 1994.
Dunne, J. P., Sarmiento, J. L., and Gnanadesikan, A.: A synthesis of global particle export from the surface ocean and cycling through the ocean interior and on the seafloor, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 21, GB4006, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006gb002907, 2007.
Eby, M., Weaver, A. J., Alexander, K., Zickfeld, K., Abe-Ouchi, A., Cimatoribus, A. A., Crespin, E., Drijfhout, S. S., Edwards, N. R., Eliseev, A. V., Feulner, G., Fichefet, T., Forest, C. E., Goosse, H., Holden, P. B., Joos, F., Kawamiya, M., Kicklighter, D., Kienert, H., Matsumoto, K., Mokhov, I. I., Monier, E., Olsen, S. M., Pedersen, J. O. P., Perrette, M., Philippon-Berthier, G., Ridgwell, A., Schlosser, A., Schneider von Deimling, T., Shaffer, G., Smith, R. S., Spahni, R., Sokolov, A. P., Steinacher, M., Tachiiri, K., Tokos, K., Yoshimori, M., Zeng, N., and Zhao, F.: Historical and idealized climate model experiments: an intercomparison of Earth system models of intermediate complexity, Clim. Past, 9, 1111–1140, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-1111-2013, 2013.
Eichinger, R., Shaffer, G., Albarrán, N., Rojas, M., and Lambert, F.: An improved land biosphere module for use in the DCESS Earth system model (version 1.1) with application to the last glacial termination, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 3481–3498, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-3481-2017, 2017.
England, M. H.: Representing the Global-Scale Water Masses in Ocean General Circulation Models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 23, 1523–1552, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1993)023<1523:RTGSWM>2.0.CO;2, 1993.
Fernández Villanueva, E.: DCESS II model v1.0, Zenodo [code], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13738105, 2024.
Fetterer, F., Knowles, K., Meier, W. N., Savoie, M., and Windnagel, A. K.: Sea Ice Index, Version 3, National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, Colorado USA [data set], https://doi.org/10.7265/N5K072F8, 2017.
Filippelli, G. M.: The Global Phosphorus Cycle, Rev. Miner. Geochem., 48, 391–425, https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2002.48.10, 2002.
Fogwill, C. J., Phipps, S. J., Turney, C. S. M., and Golledge, N. R.: Sensitivity of the Southern Ocean to enhanced regional Antarctic ice sheet meltwater input, Earth's Future, 3, 317–329, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015ef000306, 2015.
Gaillardet, J., Dupré, B., Louvat, P., and Allègre, C. J.: Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers, Chem. Geol., 159, 3–30, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00031-5, 1999.
Gangstø, R., Joos, F., and Gehlen, M.: Sensitivity of pelagic calcification to ocean acidification, Biogeosciences, 8, 433–458, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-8-433-2011, 2011.
Gargett, A. E. and Holloway, G.: Dissipation and diffusion by internal wave breaking, J. Mar. Res., 42, 15–27, 1984.
Gerber, S., Joos, F., and Prentice, I. C.: Sensitivity of a dynamic global vegetation model to climate and atmospheric CO2, Glob. Change Biol., 10, 1223–1239, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00807.x, 2004.
Gordon, A. L.: Bottom Water Formation, in: Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, 3rd Edn., edited by: Cochran, J. K., Bokuniewicz, H. J., and Yager, P. L., Academic Press, Oxford, 120–126, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.04019-7, 2019.
Gray, W. R., De Lavergne, C., Jnglin Wills, R. C., Menviel, L., Spence, P., Holzer, M., Kageyama, M., and Michel, E.: Poleward Shift in the Southern Hemisphere Westerly Winds Synchronous With the Deglacial Rise in CO2, Paleoceanogr. Paleoclim., 38, e2023PA004666, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023pa004666, 2023.
Gröger, M. and Mikolajewicz, U.: Note on the CO2 air–sea gas exchange at high temperatures, Ocean Model., 39, 284–290, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2011.05.003, 2011.
Haney, R. L.: Surface Thermal Boundary Condition for Ocean Circulation Models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 1, 241–248, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1971)001<0241:Stbcfo>2.0.Co;2, 1971.
Harper, D. T., Hönisch, B., Zeebe, R. E., Shaffer, G., Haynes, L. L., Thomas, E., and Zachos, J. C.: The Magnitude of Surface Ocean Acidification and Carbon Release During Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM-2) and the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), Paleoceanogr. Paleoclim., 35, e2019PA003699, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019pa003699, 2020.
Hartmann, D. L.: Global Physical Climatology, 2nd Edn., Elsevier Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands, https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-00030-0, 2016.
Hartmann, J., Jansen, N., Dürr, H. H., Kempe, S., and Köhler, P.: Global CO2-consumption by chemical weathering: What is the contribution of highly active weathering regions?, Global Planet. Change, 69, 185–194, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.07.007, 2009.
Haumann, F. A., Gruber, N., Münnich, M., Frenger, I., and Kern, S.: Sea-ice transport driving Southern Ocean salinity and its recent trends, Nature, 537, 89–92, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19101, 2016.
Hayes, C. T., Costa, K. M., Anderson, R. F., Calvo, E., Chase, Z., Demina, L. L., Dutay, J. C., German, C. R., Heimbürger-Boavida, L. E., Jaccard, S. L., Jacobel, A., Kohfeld, K. E., Kravchishina, M. D., Lippold, J., Mekik, F., Missiaen, L., Pavia, F. J., Paytan, A., Pedrosa-Pamies, R., Petrova, M. V., Rahman, S., Robinson, L. F., Roy-Barman, M., Sanchez-Vidal, A., Shiller, A., Tagliabue, A., Tessin, A. C., Van Hulten, M., and Zhang, J.: Global ocean sediment composition and burial flux in the deep sea, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 35, e2020GB006769, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020gb006769, 2021.
Hazarika, M. K., Yasuoka, Y., Ito, A., and Dye, D.: Estimation of net primary productivity by integrating remote sensing data with an ecosystem model, Remote Sens. Environ., 94, 298–310, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.10.004, 2005.
Hedges, J. I. and Keil, R. G.: Sedimentary organic matter preservation: an assessment and speculative synthesis, Mar. Chem., 49, 81–115, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(95)00008-F, 1995.
Heuzé, C.: Antarctic Bottom Water and North Atlantic Deep Water in CMIP6 models, Ocean Sci., 17, 59-90, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-17-59-2021, 2021.
Heywood, K. J., Schmidtko, S., Heuzé, C., Kaiser, J., Jickells, T. D., Queste, B. Y., Stevens, D. P., Wadley, M., Thompson, A. F., Fielding, S., Guihen, D., Creed, E., Ridley, J. K., and Smith, W.: Ocean processes at the Antarctic continental slope, Philos. T. R. Soc. A, 372, 20130047, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2013.0047, 2014.
Hirschi, J. J. M., Barnier, B., Böning, C., Biastoch, A., Blaker, A. T., Coward, A., Danilov, S., Drijfhout, S., Getzlaff, K., Griffies, S. M., Hasumi, H., Hewitt, H., Iovino, D., Kawasaki, T., Kiss, A. E., Koldunov, N., Marzocchi, A., Mecking, J. V., Moat, B., Molines, J. M., Myers, P. G., Penduff, T., Roberts, M., Treguier, A. M., Sein, D. V., Sidorenko, D., Small, J., Spence, P., Thompson, L., Weijer, W., and Xu, X.: The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in High-Resolution Models, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 125, e2019JC015522, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019jc015522, 2020.
IOC, SCOR, IAPSO: The international thermodynamic equation of seawater – 2010: Calculation and use of thermodynamic properties, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Manuals and Guides No. 56, UNESCO, 196 pp., https://doi.org/10.25607/OBP-1338, 2010.
Jochum, M. and Eden, C.: The Connection between Southern Ocean Winds, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, and Indo-Pacific Upwelling, J. Climate, 28, 9250–9257, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-15-0263.1, 2015.
Johnson, G. C.: Quantifying Antarctic Bottom Water and North Atlantic Deep Water volumes, J. Geophys. Res., 113, C05027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007jc004477, 2008.
IPCC: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896, 2021.
Joos, F., Roth, R., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Peters, G. P., Enting, I. G., von Bloh, W., Brovkin, V., Burke, E. J., Eby, M., Edwards, N. R., Friedrich, T., Frölicher, T. L., Halloran, P. R., Holden, P. B., Jones, C., Kleinen, T., Mackenzie, F. T., Matsumoto, K., Meinshausen, M., Plattner, G.-K., Reisinger, A., Segschneider, J., Shaffer, G., Steinacher, M., Strassmann, K., Tanaka, K., Timmermann, A., and Weaver, A. J.: Carbon dioxide and climate impulse response functions for the computation of greenhouse gas metrics: a multi-model analysis, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2793–2825, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2793-2013, 2013.
Keeling, R. F., Stephens, B. B., Najjar, R. G., Doney, S. C., Archer, D., and Heimann, M.: Seasonal variations in the atmospheric O2/N2 ratio in relation to the kinetics of air-sea gas exchange, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 12, 141–163, https://doi.org/10.1029/97gb02339, 1998.
Kim, H. and Timmermann, A.: Seawater oxygen isotopes as a tool for monitoring future meltwater from the Antarctic ice-sheet, Commun. Earth Environ., 5, 343, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01514-4, 2024.
Komar, N. and Zeebe, R. E.: Reconciling atmospheric CO2, weathering, and calcite compensation depth across the Cenozoic, Sci. Adv., 7, eabd4876, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd4876, 2021.
Krissansen-Totton, J. and Catling, D. C.: Constraining climate sensitivity and continental versus seafloor weathering using an inverse geological carbon cycle model, Nat. Commun., 8, 15423, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15423, 2017.
Kunze, E.: Internal-Wave-Driven Mixing: Global Geography and Budgets, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 47, 1325–1345, https://doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-16-0141.1, 2017.
Laufkotter, C., John, J. G., Stock, C. A., and Dunne, J. P.: Temperature and oxygen dependence of the remineralization of organic matter, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 31, 1038–1050, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017gb005643, 2017.
Lauvset, S. K., Lange, N., Tanhua, T., Bittig, H. C., Olsen, A., Kozyr, A., Alin, S. R., Álvarez, M., Azetsu-Scott, K., Barbero, L., Becker, S., Brown, P. J., Carter, B. R., Cotrim da Cunha, L., Feely, R. A., Hoppema, M., Humphreys, M. P., Ishii, M., Jeansson, E., Jiang, L. Q., Jones, S. D., Lo Monaco, C., Murata, A., Müller, J. D., Pérez, F. F., Pfeil, B., Schirnick, C., Steinfeldt, R., Suzuki, T., Tilbrook, B., Ulfsbo, A., Velo, A., Woosley, R. J., and Key, R. M.: Global Ocean Data Analysis Project version 2.2022 (GLODAPv2.2022), NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information [data set], https://doi.org/10.25921/1f4w-0t92, 2022.
Lee, S. Y., Chiang, J. C. H., Matsumoto, K., and Tokos, K. S.: Southern Ocean wind response to North Atlantic cooling and the rise in atmospheric CO2: Modeling perspective and paleoceanographic implications, Paleoceanography, 26, PA1214, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010pa002004, 2011.
Lenton, T. M., Daines, S. J., and Mills, B. J. W.: COPSE reloaded: An improved model of biogeochemical cycling over Phanerozoic time, Earth-Sci. Rev., 178, 1–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.12.004, 2018.
Li, M., Peng, C., Wang, M., Xue, W., Zhang, K., Wang, K., Shi, G., and Zhu, Q.: The carbon flux of global rivers: A re-evaluation of amount and spatial patterns, Ecol. Indic., 80, 40–51, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.04.049, 2017.
Li, Q., England, M. H., Hogg, A. M., Rintoul, S. R., and Morrison, A. K.: Abyssal ocean overturning slowdown and warming driven by Antarctic meltwater, Nature, 615, 841–847, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05762-w, 2023.
Lohmann, G. and Lorenz, S.: On the hydrological cycle under paleoclimatic conditions as derived from AGCM simulations, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 17417–17436, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900189, 2000.
Ludwig, W., Amiotte-Suchet, P., and Probst, J.-L.: Enhanced chemical weathering of rocks during the last glacial maximum: a sink for atmospheric CO2?, Chem. Geol., 159, 147–161, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00038-8, 1999.
MacDougall, A. H., Frölicher, T. L., Jones, C. D., Rogelj, J., Matthews, H. D., Zickfeld, K., Arora, V. K., Barrett, N. J., Brovkin, V., Burger, F. A., Eby, M., Eliseev, A. V., Hajima, T., Holden, P. B., Jeltsch-Thömmes, A., Koven, C., Mengis, N., Menviel, L., Michou, M., Mokhov, I. I., Oka, A., Schwinger, J., Séférian, R., Shaffer, G., Sokolov, A., Tachiiri, K., Tjiputra , J., Wiltshire, A., and Ziehn, T.: Is there warming in the pipeline? A multi-model analysis of the Zero Emissions Commitment from CO2, Biogeosciences, 17, 2987–3016, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2987-2020, 2020.
Mackie, S., Smith, I. J., Ridley, J. K., Stevens, D. P., and Langhorne, P. J.: Climate response to increasing Antarctic iceberg and ice shelf melt, J. Climate, 33, 8917-8938, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-19-0881.1, 2020.
Maier-Reimer, E.: Geochemical cycles in an ocean general circulation model. Preindustrial tracer distributions, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 7, 645–677, https://doi.org/10.1029/93gb01355, 1993.
Marchal, O., Stocker, T. F., and Joos, F.: A latitude-depth, circulation-biogeochemical ocean model for paleoclimate studies. Development and sensitivities, Tellus B, 50, 290–316, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v50i3.16130, 1998.
Marsay, C. M., Sanders, R. J., Henson, S. A., Pabortsava, K., Achterberg, E. P., and Lampitt, R. S.: Attenuation of sinking particulate organic carbon flux through the mesopelagic ocean, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 112, 1089–1094, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1415311112, 2015.
Martin, J. H., Knauer, G. A., Karl, D. M., and Broenkow, W. W.: VERTEX: carbon cycling in the northeast Pacific, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 34, 267–285, https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(87)90086-0, 1987.
Masson-Delmotte, V., Hou, S., Ekaykin, A., Jouzel, J., Aristarain, A., Bernardo, R. T., Bromwich, D., Cattani, O., Delmotte, M., Falourd, S., Frezzotti, M., Gallée, H., Genoni, L., Isaksson, E., Landais, A., Helsen, M. M., Hoffmann, G., Lopez, J., Morgan, V., Motoyama, H., Noone, D., Oerter, H., Petit, J. R., Royer, A., Uemura, R., Schmidt, G. A., Schlosser, E., Simões, J. C., Steig, E. J., Stenni, B., Stievenard, M., Van Den Broeke, M. R., Van De Wal, R. S. W., Van De Berg, W. J., Vimeux, F., and White, J. W. C.: A Review of Antarctic Surface Snow Isotopic Composition: Observations, Atmospheric Circulation, and Isotopic Modeling, J. Climate, 21, 3359–3387, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007jcli2139.1, 2008.
Mayr, C., Lücke, A., Wagner, S., Wissel, H., Ohlendorf, C., Haberzettl, T., Oehlerich, M., Schäbitz, F., Wille, M., Zhu, J., and Zolitschka, B.: Intensified Southern Hemisphere westerlies regulated atmospheric CO2 during the last deglaciation, Geology, 41, 831–834, https://doi.org/10.1130/G34335.1, 2013.
Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Eyring, V., Flato, G., Lamarque, J.-F., Stouffer, R. J., Taylor, K. E., and Schlund, M.: Context for interpreting equilibrium climate sensitivity and transient climate response from the CMIP6 Earth system models, Sci. Adv., 6, eaba1981, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba1981, 2020.
Menviel, L., Spence, P., Yu, J., Chamberlain, M. A., Matear, R. J., Meissner, K. J., and England, M. H.: Southern Hemisphere westerlies as a driver of the early deglacial atmospheric CO2 rise, Nat. Commun., 9, 2503, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04876-4, 2018.
Milliman, J. and Droxler, A.: Calcium carbonate sedimentation in the global ocean: Linkages between the neritic and pelagic environments, Oceanography, 8, 92–94, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.1995.04, 1995.
Milliman, J. D.: Production and accumulation of calcium carbonate in the ocean: Budget of a nonsteady state, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 7, 927–957, https://doi.org/10.1029/93GB02524, 1993.
Mucci, A.: The solubility of calcite and aragonite in seawater at various salinities, temperatures, and one atmosphere total pressure, Am. J. Sci., 283, 780–799, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.283.7.780, 1983.
Munhoven, G.: Glacial–interglacial changes of continental weathering: estimates of the related CO2 and HCO
Munhoven, G.: Glacial–interglacial rain ratio changes: Implications for atmospheric CO2 and ocean–sediment interaction, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 722–746, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.01.008, 2007.
Mutshinda, C., Finkel, Z., Widdicombe, C., and Irwin, A.: Phytoplankton traits from long-term oceanographic time-series, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 576, 11–25, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12220, 2017.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Global Monitoring Laboratory (GML): Mauna Loa CO2 monthly mean data, NOAA and GML [data set], https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/, last access: 28 January 2021.
NOAA: NOAA-CIRES-DOE Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project version 3, NOAA PSL [data set], Boulder, Colorado, USA, https://www.psl.noaa.gov/data/gridded/data.20thC_ReanV3.html, last access: 18 November 2022.
Olsen, S. M., Shaffer, G., and Bjerrum, C. J.: Ocean oxygen isotope constraints on mechanisms for millennial-scale climate variability, Paleoceanogr. Paleoclim., 20, PA1014, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001063, 2005.
Oort, A. H. and Peixoto, J. P.: Global Angular-Momentum and Energy-Balance Requirements from Observations, Adv. Geophys., 25, 355–490, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60177-6, 1983.
Orsi, A. H.: Recycling bottom waters, Nat. Geosci., 3, 307–309, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo854, 2010.
Orsi, A. H., Johnson, G. C., and Bullister, J. L.: Circulation, mixing, and production of Antarctic Bottom Water, Prog. Oceanogr., 43, 55–109, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6611(99)00004-X, 1999.
Orsi, A. H., Jacobs, S. S., Gordon, A. L., and Visbeck, M.: Cooling and ventilating the Abyssal Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2923–2926, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001gl012830, 2001.
Orsi, A. H., Smethie, W. M. J., and Bullister, J., L.: On the total input of Antarctic waters to the deep ocean: A preliminary estimate from chlorofluorocarbon measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 31-1–31-14, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JC000976, 2002.
Pagani, M., Arthur, M. A., and Freeman, K. H.: Miocene evolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide, Paleoceanography, 14, 273–292, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999pa900006, 1999.
Park, W. and Latif, M.: Ensemble global warming simulations with idealized Antarctic meltwater input, Clim. Dynam., 52, 3223–3239, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4319-8, 2019.
Paytan, A. and McLaughlin, K.: The oceanic phosphorus cycle, Chem. Rev., 107, 563–576, https://doi.org/10.1021/cr0503613, 2007.
Planchat, A., Kwiatkowski, L., Bopp, L., Torres, O., Christian, J. R., Butenschön, M., Lovato, T., Séférian, R., Chamberlain, M. A., Aumont, O., Watanabe, M., Yamamoto, A., Yool, A., Ilyina, T., Tsujino, H., Krumhardt, K. M., Schwinger, J., Tjiputra, J., Dunne, J. P., and Stock, C.: The representation of alkalinity and the carbonate pump from CMIP5 to CMIP6 Earth system models and implications for the carbon cycle, Biogeosciences, 20, 1195–1257, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1195-2023, 2023.
Purkey, S. G. and Johnson, G. C.: Antarctic Bottom Water Warming and Freshening: Contributions to Sea Level Rise, Ocean Freshwater Budgets, and Global Heat Gain, J. Climate, 26, 6105–6122, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00834.1, 2013.
Rahmstorf, S. and England, M. H.: Influence of Southern Hemisphere Winds on North Atlantic Deep Water Flow, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 27, 2040–2054, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1997)027<2040:IOSHWO>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Regaudie-de-Gioux, A. and Duarte, C. M.: Temperature dependence of planktonic metabolism in the ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 26, GB1015, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010gb003907, 2012.
Rodriguez, J. M., Johns, T. C., Thorpe, R. B., and Wiltshire, A.: Using moisture conservation to evaluate oceanic surface freshwater fluxes in climate models, Clim. Dynam., 37, 205–219, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0899-7, 2011.
Roquet, F., Madec, G., McDougall, T. J., and Barker, P. M.: Accurate polynomial expressions for the density and specific volume of seawater using the TEOS-10 standard, Ocean Model., 90, 29–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2015.04.002, 2015.
Ruckert, K. L., Shaffer, G., Pollard, D., Guan, Y., Wong, T. E., Forest, C. E., and Keller, K.: Assessing the Impact of Retreat Mechanisms in a Simple Antarctic Ice Sheet Model Using Bayesian Calibration, PLOS ONE, 12, e0170052, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170052, 2017.
Sarmiento, J. L. and Gruber, N.: Ocean Biogeochemical Dynamics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt3fgxqx, 2006.
Schmidt, G. A.: Forward modeling of carbonate proxy data from planktonic foraminifera using oxygen isotope tracers in a global ocean model, Paleoceanography, 14, 482–497, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999PA900025, 1999.
Shaffer, G.: Long-term effectiveness and consequences of carbon dioxide sequestration, Nat. Geosci., 3, 464–467, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo896, 2010.
Shaffer, G.: Formulation, calibration and validation of the DAIS model (version 1), a simple Antarctic ice sheet model sensitive to variations of sea level and ocean subsurface temperature, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 1803–1818, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1803-2014, 2014.
Shaffer, G. and Lambert, F.: In and out of glacial extremes by way of dust−climate feedbacks, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 115, 2026–2031, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1708174115, 2018.
Shaffer, G. and Olsen, S. M.: Sensitivity of the thermohaline circulation and climate to ocean exchanges in a simple coupled model, Clim. Dynam., 17, 433–444, https://doi.org/10.1007/pl00013739, 2001.
Shaffer, G., Bendtsen, J., and Ulloa, O.: Fractionation during remineralization of organic matter in the ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 46, 185–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00061-2, 1999.
Shaffer, G., Malskær Olsen, S., and Pepke Pedersen, J. O.: Presentation, calibration and validation of the low-order, DCESS Earth System Model (Version 1), Geosci. Model Dev., 1, 17–51, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-1-17-2008, 2008.
Shaffer, G., Olsen, S. M., and Pedersen, J. O. P.: Long-term ocean oxygen depletion in response to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, Nat. Geosci., 2, 105–109, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo420, 2009.
Shaffer, G., Huber, M., Rondanelli, R., and Pepke Pedersen, J. O.: Deep time evidence for climate sensitivity increase with warming, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 6538–6545, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl069243, 2016.
Shaffer, G., Fernández Villanueva, E., Rondanelli, R., Pedersen, J. O. P., Olsen, S. M., and Huber, M.: Implementation of methane cycling for deep-time global warming simulations with the DCESS Earth system model (version 1.2), Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 4081–4103, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-4081-2017, 2017.
Siegel, D. A., Buesseler, K. O., Doney, S. C., Sailley, S. F., Behrenfeld, M. J., and Boyd, P. W.: Global assessment of ocean carbon export by combining satellite observations and food-web models, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 28, 181–196, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013gb004743, 2014.
Siegenthaler, U. and Oeschger, H.: Biospheric CO2 emissions during the past 200 years reconstructed by deconvolution of ice core data, Tellus B, 39B, 140–154, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.1987.tb00278.x, 1987.
Silvano, A., Rintoul, S. R., Peña-Molino, B., Hobbs, W. R., van Wijk, E., Aoki, S., Tamura, T., and Williams, G. D.: Freshening by glacial meltwater enhances melting of ice shelves and reduces formation of Antarctic Bottom Water, Sci. Adv., 4, eaap9467, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aap9467, 2018.
Stocker, T. F., Broecker, W. S., and Wright, D. G.: Carbon uptake experiments with a zonally-averaged global ocean circulation model, Tellus B, 46, 103–122, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v46i2.15756, 1994.
Stone, P. H. and Miller, D. A.: Empirical relations between seasonal changes in meridional temperature gradients and meridional fluxes of heat, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 1708–1721, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<1708:ERBSCI>2.0.CO;2, 1980.
Sulpis, O., Jeansson, E., Dinauer, A., Lauvset, S. K., and Middelburg, J. J.: Calcium carbonate dissolution patterns in the ocean, Nat. Geosci., 14, 423–428, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-021-00743-y, 2021.
Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, M. W., and Fleming, R. H.: The Oceans: Their physics, chemistry, and general biology, Prentice Hall, Inc., New York, USA, 1942.
Talley, L. D., Reid, J. L., and Robbins, P. E.: Data-based meridional overturning streamfunctions for the global ocean, J. Climate, 16, 3213–3226, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<3213:Dmosft>2.0.Co;2, 2003.
Toggweiler, J. R., Russell, J. L., and Carson, S. R.: Midlatitude westerlies, atmospheric CO2, and climate change during the ice ages, Paleoceanography, 21, PA2005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005pa001154, 2006.
Trenberth, K. E. and Caron, J. M.: Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports, J. Climate, 14, 3433–3443, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3433:eomaao>2.0.co;2, 2001.
Wang, X. L., Stone, P. H., and Marotzke, J.: Global thermohaline circulation. Part II: Sensitivity with interactive atmospheric transports, J. Climate, 12, 83–91, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<0083:GTCPIS>2.0.CO;2, 1999.
Wanninkhof, R.: Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 7373–7382, https://doi.org/10.1029/92JC00188, 1992.
Weiss, R. F.: The solubility of nitrogen, oxygen and argon in water and seawater, Deep-Sea Res. Ocean. Abstr., 17, 721–735, https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(70)90037-9, 1970.
Weiss, R. F.: Carbon dioxide in water and seawater: the solubility of a non-ideal gas, Mar. Chem., 2, 203–215, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(74)90015-2, 1974.
Willeit, M., Ilyina, T., Liu, B., Heinze, C., Perrette, M., Heinemann, M., Dalmonech, D., Brovkin, V., Munhoven, G., Börker, J., Hartmann, J., Romero-Mujalli, G., and Ganopolski, A.: The Earth system model CLIMBER-X v1.0 – Part 2: The global carbon cycle, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3501–3534, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3501-2023, 2023.
Xu, X. B., Chang, Y. S., Peters, H., Ozgokmen, T. M., and Chassignet, E. P.: Parameterization of gravity current entrainment for ocean circulation models using a high-order 3D nonhydrostatic spectral element model, Ocean Model., 14, 19–44, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocemod.2006.02.006, 2006.
Yamanaka, Y. and Tajika, E.: The role of the vertical fluxes of particulate organic matter and calcite in the oceanic carbon cycle: Studies using an ocean biogeochemical general circulation model, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 10, 361–382, https://doi.org/10.1029/96gb00634, 1996.
Zhang, J., Quay, P. D., and Wilbur, D. O.: Carbon isotope fractionation during gas-water exchange and dissolution of CO2, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 59, 107–114, https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(95)91550-D, 1995.
Zelinka, M. D., Myers, T. A., Mccoy, D. T., Po-Chedley, S., Caldwell, P. M., Ceppi, P., Klein, S. A., and Taylor, K. E.: Causes of higher climate sensitivity in CMIP6 models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2019GL085782, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019gl085782, 2020.
Zickfeld, K., Eby, M., Weaver, A. J., Alexander, K., Crespin, E., Edwards, N. R., Eliseev, A. V., Feulner, G., Fichefet, T., Forest, C. E., Friedlingstein, P., Goosse, H., Holden, P. B., Joos, F., Kawamiya, M., Kicklighter, D., Kienert, H., Matsumoto, K., Mokhov, I. I., Monier, E., Olsen, S. M., Pedersen, J. O. P., Perrette, M., Philippon-Berthier, G., Ridgwell, A., Schlosser, A., Schneider Von Deimling, T., Shaffer, G., Sokolov, A., Spahni, R., Steinacher, M., Tachiiri, K., Tokos, K. S., Yoshimori, M., Zeng, N., and Zhao, F.: Long-Term Climate Change Commitment and Reversibility: An EMIC Intercomparison, J. Climate, 26, 5782–5809, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-12-00584.1, 2013.
Zondervan, J. R., Hilton, R. G., Dellinger, M., Clubb, F. J., Roylands, T., and Ogrič, M.: Rock organic carbon oxidation CO2 release offsets silicate weathering sink, Nature, 623, 329–333, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06581-9, 2023.
Short summary
We describe, calibrate and test the Danish Center for Earth System Science (DCESS) II model, a new, broad, adaptable and fast Earth system model. DCESS II is designed for global simulations over timescales of years to millions of years using limited computer resources like a personal computer. With its flexibility and comprehensive treatment of the global carbon cycle, DCESS II is a useful, computationally friendly tool for simulations of past climates as well as for future Earth system projections.
We describe, calibrate and test the Danish Center for Earth System Science (DCESS) II model, a...
