Articles | Volume 17, issue 7
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2961-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-2961-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Analytical and adaptable initial conditions for dry and moist baroclinic waves in the global hydrostatic model OpenIFS (CY43R3)
Clément Bouvier
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Daan van den Broek
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Madeleine Ekblom
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Victoria A. Sinclair
Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Related authors
Joona Cornér, Clément Bouvier, Benjamin Doiteau, Florian Pantillon, and Victoria A. Sinclair
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 207–229, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Classification reduces the considerable variability between extratropical cyclones (ETCs) and thus simplifies studying their representation in climate models and changes in the future climate. In this paper we present an objective classification of ETCs using measures of ETC intensity. This is motivated by the aim of finding a set of ETC intensity measures which together comprehensively describe both the dynamical and impact-relevant nature of ETC intensity.
Tuomas Naakka, Daniel Köhler, Kalle Nordling, Petri Räisänen, Marianne Tronstad Lund, Risto Makkonen, Joonas Merikanto, Bjørn H. Samset, Victoria A. Sinclair, Jennie L. Thomas, and Annica M. L. Ekman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 8127–8145, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8127-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8127-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The effects of warmer sea surface temperatures and decreasing sea ice cover on polar climates have been studied using four climate models with identical prescribed changes in sea surface temperatures and sea ice cover. The models predict similar changes in air temperature and precipitation in the polar regions in a warmer climate with less sea ice. However, the models disagree on how the atmospheric circulation, i.e. the large-scale winds, will change with warmer temperatures and less sea ice.
Aino Ovaska, Elio Rauth, Daniel Holmberg, Paulo Artaxo, John Backman, Benjamin Bergmans, Don Collins, Marco Aurélio Franco, Shahzad Gani, Roy M. Harrison, Rakes K. Hooda, Tareq Hussein, Antti-Pekka Hyvärinen, Kerneels Jaars, Adam Kristensson, Markku Kulmala, Lauri Laakso, Ari Laaksonen, Nikolaos Mihalopoulos, Colin O'Dowd, Jakub Ondracek, Tuukka Petäjä, Kristina Plauškaitė, Mira Pöhlker, Ximeng Qi, Peter Tunved, Ville Vakkari, Alfred Wiedensohler, Kai Puolamäki, Tuomo Nieminen, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Victoria A. Sinclair, and Pauli Paasonen
Aerosol Research Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-2025-18, https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-2025-18, 2025
Preprint under review for AR
Short summary
Short summary
We trained machine learning models to estimate the number of aerosol particles large enough to form clouds and generated daily estimates for the entire globe. The models performed well in many continental regions but struggled in remote and marine areas. Still, this approach offers a way to quantify these particles in areas that lack direct measurements, helping us understand their influence on clouds and climate on a global scale.
Daniel Köhler, Petri Räisänen, Tuomas Naakka, Kalle Nordling, and Victoria A. Sinclair
Weather Clim. Dynam., 6, 669–694, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-669-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-6-669-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We study the impacts of globally increasing sea surface temperatures and sea ice loss on the atmosphere in wintertime. In future climates, the jet stream shifts southward over the North Atlantic and extends further over Europe. Increasing sea surface temperatures drives these changes. The region of high activity of low-pressure systems is projected to move east towards Europe. Future increasing sea surface temperatures and sea ice loss contribute with similar magnitude to the eastward shift.
Sara Tahvonen, Daniel Köhler, Petri Räisänen, and Victoria Anne Sinclair
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2212, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2212, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Rossby wave breaking (RWB) influences weather at a large scale and can contribute to extreme weather events, but it is not known if climate change will have an effect on where and how often RWB occurs. We investigate how extreme sea ice loss and warming of the sea surface effect RWB. Our results show that sea surface temperatures significantly change local RWB frequencies and the closely related upper atmospheric jet streams, but that sea ice changes have no noticeable effect.
Ilona Láng-Ritter, Terhi Kristiina Laurila, Antti Mäkelä, Hilppa Gregow, and Victoria Anne Sinclair
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1697–1717, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1697-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-1697-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present a classification method for extratropical cyclones and windstorms and show their impacts on Finland's electricity grid by analysing the 92 most damaging windstorms (2005–2018). The south-west- and north-west-arriving windstorms cause the most damage to the power grid. The most relevant parameters for damage are the wind gust speed and extent of wind gusts. Windstorms are more frequent and damaging in autumn and winter, but weaker wind speeds in summer also cause significant damage.
Hans Segura, Xabier Pedruzo-Bagazgoitia, Philipp Weiss, Sebastian K. Müller, Thomas Rackow, Junhong Lee, Edgar Dolores-Tesillos, Imme Benedict, Matthias Aengenheyster, Razvan Aguridan, Gabriele Arduini, Alexander J. Baker, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Eulàlia Baulenas, Tobias Becker, Sebastian Beyer, Hendryk Bockelmann, Nils Brüggemann, Lukas Brunner, Suvarchal K. Cheedela, Sushant Das, Jasper Denissen, Ian Dragaud, Piotr Dziekan, Madeleine Ekblom, Jan Frederik Engels, Monika Esch, Richard Forbes, Claudia Frauen, Lilli Freischem, Diego García-Maroto, Philipp Geier, Paul Gierz, Álvaro González-Cervera, Katherine Grayson, Matthew Griffith, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Ioan Hadade, Kerstin Haslehner, Shabeh ul Hasson, Jan Hegewald, Lukas Kluft, Aleksei Koldunov, Nikolay Koldunov, Tobias Kölling, Shunya Koseki, Sergey Kosukhin, Josh Kousal, Peter Kuma, Arjun U. Kumar, Rumeng Li, Nicolas Maury, Maximilian Meindl, Sebastian Milinski, Kristian Mogensen, Bimochan Niraula, Jakub Nowak, Divya Sri Praturi, Ulrike Proske, Dian Putrasahan, René Redler, David Santuy, Domokos Sármány, Reiner Schnur, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Dorian Spät, Birgit Sützl, Daisuke Takasuka, Adrian Tompkins, Alejandro Uribe, Mirco Valentini, Menno Veerman, Aiko Voigt, Sarah Warnau, Fabian Wachsmann, Marta Wacławczyk, Nils Wedi, Karl-Hermann Wieners, Jonathan Wille, Marius Winkler, Yuting Wu, Florian Ziemen, Janos Zimmermann, Frida A.-M. Bender, Dragana Bojovic, Sandrine Bony, Simona Bordoni, Patrice Brehmer, Marcus Dengler, Emanuel Dutra, Saliou Faye, Erich Fischer, Chiel van Heerwaarden, Cathy Hohenegger, Heikki Järvinen, Markus Jochum, Thomas Jung, Johann H. Jungclaus, Noel S. Keenlyside, Daniel Klocke, Heike Konow, Martina Klose, Szymon Malinowski, Olivia Martius, Thorsten Mauritsen, Juan Pedro Mellado, Theresa Mieslinger, Elsa Mohino, Hanna Pawłowska, Karsten Peters-von Gehlen, Abdoulaye Sarré, Pajam Sobhani, Philip Stier, Lauri Tuppi, Pier Luigi Vidale, Irina Sandu, and Bjorn Stevens
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-509, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-509, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The nextGEMS project developed two Earth system models that resolve processes of the order of 10 km, giving more fidelity to the representation of local phenomena, globally. In its fourth cycle, nextGEMS performed simulations with coupled ocean, land, and atmosphere over the 2020–2049 period under the SSP3-7.0 scenario. Here, we provide an overview of nextGEMS, insights into the model development, and the realism of multi-decadal, kilometer-scale simulations.
Johannes Mikkola, Alexander Gohm, Victoria A. Sinclair, and Federico Bianchi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 511–533, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-511-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-511-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the influence of valley floor inclination on diurnal winds and passive tracer transport within idealised mountain valleys using numerical simulations. The valley inclination strengthens the daytime up-valley winds but only up to a certain point. Beyond that critical angle, the winds weaken again. The inclined valleys transport the tracers higher up in the free troposphere, which would, for example, lead to higher potential for long-range transport.
Diego Aliaga, Victoria A. Sinclair, Radovan Krejci, Marcos Andrade, Paulo Artaxo, Luis Blacutt, Runlong Cai, Samara Carbone, Yvette Gramlich, Liine Heikkinen, Dominic Heslin-Rees, Wei Huang, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Alkuin Maximilian Koenig, Markku Kulmala, Paolo Laj, Valeria Mardoñez-Balderrama, Claudia Mohr, Isabel Moreno, Pauli Paasonen, Wiebke Scholz, Karine Sellegri, Laura Ticona, Gaëlle Uzu, Fernando Velarde, Alfred Wiedensohler, Doug Worsnop, Cheng Wu, Chen Xuemeng, Qiaozhi Zha, and Federico Bianchi
Aerosol Research, 3, 15–44, https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-3-15-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-3-15-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines new particle formation (NPF) in the Bolivian Andes at Chacaltaya mountain (CHC) and the urban El Alto–La Paz area (EAC). Days are clustered into four categories based on NPF intensity. Differences in particle size, precursor gases, and pollution levels are found. High NPF intensities increased Aitken mode particle concentrations at both sites, while volcanic influence selectively diminished NPF intensity at CHC but not EAC. This study highlights NPF dynamics in the Andes.
Joona Cornér, Clément Bouvier, Benjamin Doiteau, Florian Pantillon, and Victoria A. Sinclair
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 207–229, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-25-207-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Classification reduces the considerable variability between extratropical cyclones (ETCs) and thus simplifies studying their representation in climate models and changes in the future climate. In this paper we present an objective classification of ETCs using measures of ETC intensity. This is motivated by the aim of finding a set of ETC intensity measures which together comprehensively describe both the dynamical and impact-relevant nature of ETC intensity.
Zoé Brasseur, Julia Schneider, Janne Lampilahti, Ville Vakkari, Victoria A. Sinclair, Christina J. Williamson, Carlton Xavier, Dmitri Moisseev, Markus Hartmann, Pyry Poutanen, Markus Lampimäki, Markku Kulmala, Tuukka Petäjä, Katrianne Lehtipalo, Erik S. Thomson, Kristina Höhler, Ottmar Möhler, and Jonathan Duplissy
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 11305–11332, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11305-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11305-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Ice-nucleating particles (INPs) strongly influence the formation of clouds by initiating the formation of ice crystals. However, very little is known about the vertical distribution of INPs in the atmosphere. Here, we present aircraft measurements of INP concentrations above the Finnish boreal forest. Results show that near-surface INPs are efficiently transported and mixed within the boundary layer and occasionally reach the free troposphere.
Victoria A. Sinclair and Jennifer L. Catto
Weather Clim. Dynam., 4, 567–589, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-567-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-4-567-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We studied the relationship between the strength of mid-latitude cyclones and their precipitation, how this may change in the future, and whether it depends of the type of cyclone. The relationship between cyclone strength and precipitation increases in warmer climates and depends strongly on the type of cyclone. For some cyclone types there is no relation between cyclone strength and precipitation. For all cyclone types, precipitation increases with uniform warming and polar amplification.
Qiaozhi Zha, Wei Huang, Diego Aliaga, Otso Peräkylä, Liine Heikkinen, Alkuin Maximilian Koenig, Cheng Wu, Joonas Enroth, Yvette Gramlich, Jing Cai, Samara Carbone, Armin Hansel, Tuukka Petäjä, Markku Kulmala, Douglas Worsnop, Victoria Sinclair, Radovan Krejci, Marcos Andrade, Claudia Mohr, and Federico Bianchi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 4559–4576, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4559-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4559-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the chemical composition of atmospheric cluster ions from January to May 2018 at the high-altitude research station Chacaltaya (5240 m a.s.l.) in the Bolivian Andes. With state-of-the-art mass spectrometers and air mass history analysis, the measured cluster ions exhibited distinct diurnal and seasonal patterns, some of which contributed to new particle formation. Our study will improve the understanding of atmospheric ions and their role in high-altitude new particle formation.
Wiebke Scholz, Jiali Shen, Diego Aliaga, Cheng Wu, Samara Carbone, Isabel Moreno, Qiaozhi Zha, Wei Huang, Liine Heikkinen, Jean Luc Jaffrezo, Gaelle Uzu, Eva Partoll, Markus Leiminger, Fernando Velarde, Paolo Laj, Patrick Ginot, Paolo Artaxo, Alfred Wiedensohler, Markku Kulmala, Claudia Mohr, Marcos Andrade, Victoria Sinclair, Federico Bianchi, and Armin Hansel
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 895–920, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-895-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-895-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), emitted from the ocean, is the most abundant biogenic sulfur emission into the atmosphere. OH radicals, among others, can oxidize DMS to sulfuric and methanesulfonic acid, which are relevant for aerosol formation. We quantified DMS and nearly all DMS oxidation products with novel mass spectrometric instruments for gas and particle phase at the high mountain station Chacaltaya (5240 m a.s.l.) in the Bolivian Andes in free tropospheric air after long-range transport.
Johannes Mikkola, Victoria A. Sinclair, Marja Bister, and Federico Bianchi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 821–842, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-821-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-821-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Local winds in four valleys located in the Nepal Himalayas are studied by means of high-resolution meteorological modelling. Well-defined daytime up-valley winds are simulated in all of the valleys with some variation in the flow depth and strength among the valleys and their parts. Parts of the valleys with a steep valley floor inclination (2–5°) are associated with weaker and shallower daytime up-valley winds compared with the parts that have nearly flat valley floors (< 1°).
Victoria Anne Sinclair, Jenna Ritvanen, Gabin Urbancic, Irene Erner, Yurii Batrak, Dmitri Moisseev, and Mona Kurppa
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 3075–3103, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-3075-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-3075-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the boundary-layer (BL) height and surface stability in southern Finland using radiosondes, a microwave radiometer and ERA5 reanalysis. Accurately quantifying the BL height is challenging, and the diagnosed BL height can depend strongly on the method used. Microwave radiometers provide reliable estimates of the BL height but only in unstable conditions. ERA5 captures the BL height well except under very stable conditions, which occur most commonly at night during the warm season.
Terhi K. Laurila, Hilppa Gregow, Joona Cornér, and Victoria A. Sinclair
Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 1111–1130, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1111-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-1111-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We create a climatology of mid-latitude cyclones and windstorms in northern Europe and investigate how sensitive the minimum pressure and maximum gust of windstorms are to four precursors. Windstorms are more common in the cold season than the warm season, whereas the number of mid-latitude cyclones has no annual cycle. The low-level temperature gradient has the strongest impact of all considered precursors on the intensity of windstorms in terms of both the minimum pressure and maximum gust.
Diego Aliaga, Victoria A. Sinclair, Marcos Andrade, Paulo Artaxo, Samara Carbone, Evgeny Kadantsev, Paolo Laj, Alfred Wiedensohler, Radovan Krejci, and Federico Bianchi
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 16453–16477, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16453-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16453-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the origin of air masses sampled at Mount Chacaltaya, Bolivia. Three-quarters of the measured air has not been influenced by the surface in the previous 4 d. However, it is rare that, at any given time, the sampled air has not been influenced at all by the surface, and often the sampled air has multiple origins. The influence of the surface is more prevalent during day than night. Furthermore, during the 6-month study, one-third of the air masses originated from Amazonia.
Nahid Atashi, Dariush Rahimi, Victoria A. Sinclair, Martha A. Zaidan, Anton Rusanen, Henri Vuollekoski, Markku Kulmala, Timo Vesala, and Tareq Hussein
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 4719–4740, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4719-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-4719-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Dew formation potential during a long-term period (1979–2018) was assessed in Iran to identify dew formation zones and to investigate the impacts of long-term variation in meteorological parameters on dew formation. Six dew formation zones were identified based on cluster analysis of the time series of the simulated dew yield. The distribution of dew formation zones in Iran was closely aligned with topography and sources of moisture. The dew formation trend was significantly negative.
Janne Lampilahti, Katri Leino, Antti Manninen, Pyry Poutanen, Anna Franck, Maija Peltola, Paula Hietala, Lisa Beck, Lubna Dada, Lauriane Quéléver, Ronja Öhrnberg, Ying Zhou, Madeleine Ekblom, Ville Vakkari, Sergej Zilitinkevich, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Tuukka Petäjä, and Markku Kulmala
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7901–7915, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7901-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7901-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Using airborne measurements we observed increased number concentrations of sub-25 nm particles in the upper residual layer. These particles may be entrained into the well-mixed boundary layer and observed at the surface. We attribute our observations to new particle formation in the topmost part of the residual layer.
Pirkka Ollinaho, Glenn D. Carver, Simon T. K. Lang, Lauri Tuppi, Madeleine Ekblom, and Heikki Järvinen
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 2143–2160, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2143-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2143-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
OpenEnsemble 1.0 is a novel dataset that aims to open ensemble or probabilistic weather forecasting research up to the academic community. The dataset contains atmospheric states that are required for running model forecasts of atmospheric evolution. Our capacity to observe the atmosphere is limited; thus, a single reconstruction of the atmospheric state contains some errors. Our dataset provides sets of 50 slightly different atmospheric states so that these errors can be taken into account.
Lauri Tuppi, Pirkka Ollinaho, Madeleine Ekblom, Vladimir Shemyakin, and Heikki Järvinen
Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 5799–5812, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5799-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5799-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents general guidelines on how to utilise computer algorithms efficiently in order to tune weather models so that they would produce better forecasts. The main conclusions are that the computer algorithms work most efficiently with a suitable cost function, certain forecast length and ensemble size. We expect that our results will facilitate the use of algorithmic methods in the tuning of weather models.
Cited articles
Adamson, D. S., Belcher, S. E., Hoskins, B. J., and Plant, R. S.: Boundary-layer friction in midlatitude cyclones, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 132, 101–124, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.145, 2006. a
Agustí-Panareda, A., Gray, S. L., Craig, G. C., and Thorncroft, C.: The extratropical transition of Tropical Cyclone Lili (1996) and its crucial contribution to a moderate extratropical development, Mon. Weather Rev., 133, 1562–1573, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR2935.1, 2005. a, b, c
Beare, R. J.: Boundary layer mechanisms in extratropical cyclones, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 503–515, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.30, 2007. a, b
Beljaars, A. C.: The parametrization of surface fluxes in large-scale models under free convection, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 121, 255–270, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712152203, 1995. a
Bolton, D.: The computation of equivalent potential temperature, Mon. Weather Rev., 108, 1046–1053, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1980)108<1046:TCOEPT>2.0.CO;2, 1980. a
Boutle, I. A., Beare, R. J., Belcher, S. E., Brown, A. R., and Plant, R. S.: The moist boundary layer under a mid-latitude weather system, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 134, 367–386, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-009-9452-9, 2010. a
Bouvier, C., van den Broek, D., Ekblom, M., and Sinclair, V.: bouvierc/Baroclinic lifecycles: OpenIFS initial background states and experiments, Zenodo [code and data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10592587 2024. a, b
Carver, G.: Ten years of OpenIFS at ECMWF, ECMWF newsletter, 170, https://www.ecmwf.int/en/newsletter/170/news/ten-years-openifs-ecmwf (last access: 10 April 2024), 2022. a
Charney, J. G.: The dynamics of long waves in a baroclinic westerly current, J. Atmos. Sci., 4, 136–162, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1947)004<0136:TDOLWI>2.0.CO;2, 1947. a
Charnock, H.: Wind stress on a water surface, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 81, 639–640, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708135027, 1955. a
Crameri, F., Shephard, G. E., and Heron, P. J.: The misuse of colour in science communication, Nat. Commun., 11, 5444, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19160-7, 2020. a, b
Eady, E. T.: Long waves and cyclone waves, Tellus, 1, 33–52, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v1i3.8507, 1949. a
ECMWF: IFS Documentation CY43R3 – Part III: Dynamics and numerical procedures, 3, ECMWF, https://doi.org/10.21957/8l7miod5m, 2017a. a, b
ECMWF: IFS Documentation CY43R3 – Part IV: Physical processes, 4, ECMWF, https://doi.org/10.21957/efyk72kl, 2017b. a
Feldstein, S. B. and Held, I. M.: Barotropic decay of baroclinic waves in a two-layer beta-plane model, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 3416–3430, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1989)046<3416:BDOBWI>2.0.CO;2, 1989. a, b, c
Gamage, S. M., Sica, R., Martucci, G., and Haefele, A.: A 1D var retrieval of relative humidity using the ERA5 dataset for the assimilation of Raman lidar measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean Tech., 37, 2051–2064, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-19-0170.1, 2020. a
Heckley, W. and Hoskins, B.: Baroclinic waves and frontogenesis in a non-uniform potential vorticity semi-geostrophic model, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1999–2016, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1982)039<1999:BWAFIA>2.0.CO;2, 1982. a
Held, I. M.: On the height of the tropopause and the static stability of the troposphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 412–417, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1982)039<0412:OTHOTT>2.0.CO;2, 1982. a
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020. a
Hines, K. M. and Mechoso, C. R.: Influence of surface drag on the evolution of fronts, Mon. Weather Rev., 121, 1152–1176, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<1152:IOSDOT>2.0.CO;2, 1993. a
Hodges, K. I.: A general method for tracking analysis and its application to meteorological data, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 2573–2586, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<2573:AGMFTA>2.0.CO;2, 1994. a
Hodges, K. I.: Feature tracking on the unit sphere, Mon. Weather Rev., 123, 3458–3465, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1995)123<3458:FTOTUS>2.0.CO;2, 1995. a
Hodges, K. I.: Adaptive constraints for feature tracking, Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 1362–1373, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127<1362:ACFFT>2.0.CO;2, 1999. a
Holton, J. R. and Hakim, G. J.: An introduction to dynamic meteorology, 5th edn., Elsevier, Academic Press, Boston, USA, 513–517, ISBN 978-0-12-384866-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-63394-8, 2013. a
Hoskins, B., Simmons, A., and Andrews, D.: Energy dispersion in a barotropic atmosphere, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 103, 553–567, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710343802, 1977. a, b, c, d
Hoskins, B. J. and Simmons, A. J.: A multi-layer spectral model and the semi-implicit method, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 637–655, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710142918, 1975. a, b
Hughes, O. K. and Jablonowski, C.: A mountain-induced moist baroclinic wave test case for the dynamical cores of atmospheric general circulation models, Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 6805–6831, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-6805-2023, 2023. a
IPCC: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, vol. In Press, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896, 2021. a, b
Khairoutdinov, M. F., Blossey, P. N., and Bretherton, C. S.: Global system for atmospheric modeling: model description and preliminary results, J. Adv. Model Earth Sy., 14, e2021MS002968, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021MS002968, 2022. a, b, c
Kirshbaum, D., Merlis, T., Gyakum, J., and McTaggart-Cowan, R.: Sensitivity of idealized moist baroclinic waves to environmental temperature and moisture content, J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 337–360, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0188.1, 2018. a, b
Kuo, Y.-H., Shapiro, M., and Donall, E. G.: The interaction between baroclinic and diabatic processes in a numerical simulation of a rapidly intensifying extratropical marine cyclone, Mon. Weather Rev., 119, 368–384, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119<0368:TIBBAD>2.0.CO;2, 1991. a, b
Leckebusch, G. C., Renggli, D., and Ulbrich, U.: Development and application of an objective storm severity measure for the Northeast Atlantic region, Meteorol. Z., 17, 575–587, https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2008/0323, 2008. a
Lee, J. H., Kim, J.-H., Sharman, R. D., Kim, J., and Son, S.-W.: Climatology of clear-air turbulence in upper troposphere and lower stratosphere in the northern hemisphere Using ERA5 reanalysis data, J. Geophys. Res., 128, e2022JD037679, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD037679, 2023. a, b
Olson, J. B. and Colle, B. A.: A modified approach to initialize an idealized extratropical cyclone within a mesoscale model, Mon. Weather Rev., 135, 1614–1624, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR3364.1, 2007. a
Park, C., Son, S.-W., and Kim, J.-H.: Role of baroclinic trough in triggering vertical motion during summertime heavy rainfall events in Korea, J. Atmos. Sci., 78, 1687–1702, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0216.1, 2021. a, b
Polvani, L. M. and Esler, J.: Transport and mixing of chemical air masses in idealized baroclinic life cycles, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D23102, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008555, 2007. a
Polvani, L. M., Scott, R., and Thomas, S.: Numerically converged solutions of the global primitive equations for testing the dynamical core of atmospheric GCMs, Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 2539–2552, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR2788.1, 2004. a
Rantanen, M., Räisänen, J., Sinclair, V. A., and Järvinen, H.: Sensitivity of idealised baroclinic waves to mean atmospheric temperature and meridional temperature gradient changes, Clim. Dynam., 52, 2703–2719, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4283-3, 2019. a
Romps, D. M.: An analytical model for tropical relative humidity, J. Climate, 27, 7432–7449, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00255.1, 2014. a
Rupp, P. and Birner, T.: Tropospheric eddy feedback to different stratospheric conditions in idealised baroclinic life cycles, Weather Clim. Dynam., 2, 111–128, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-2-111-2021, 2021. a
Shapiro, M., Wernli, H., Bao, J.-W., Methven, J., Zou, X., Doyle, J., Holt, T., Donall-Grell, E., and Neiman, P.: The life cycles of extratropical cyclones, Springer, Boston, MA, USA, 139–185, ISBN 978-1-935704-09-6, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-935704-09-6_14, 1999. a, b
Simmons, A. J. and Hoskins, B. J.: A comparison of spectral and finite-difference simulations of a growing baroclinic wave, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 101, 551–565, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710142912, 1975. a
Simmons, A. J. and Hoskins, B. J.: The life cycles of some nonlinear baroclinic waves, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 414–432, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<0414:TLCOSN>2.0.CO;2, 1978. a, b
Sinclair, V. A. and Keyser, D.: Force balances and dynamical regimes of numerically simulated cold fronts within the boundary layer, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 141, 2148–2164, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2512, 2015. a
Sinclair, V. A., Gray, S. L., and Belcher, S. E.: Controls on boundary layer ventilation: Boundary layer processes and large-scale dynamics, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D11107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012169, 2010. a
Staniforth, A. and White, A.: Some exact solutions of geophysical fluid-dynamics equations for testing models in spherical and plane geometry, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 1605–1614, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.122, 2007. a
Staniforth, A. and White, A.: Further non-separable exact solutions of the deep-and shallow-atmosphere equations, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 12, 356–361, https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.349, 2011. a
Stoelinga, M. T.: A potential vorticity-based study of the role of diabatic heating and friction in a numerically simulated baroclinic cyclone, Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 849–874, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1996)124<0849:APVBSO>2.0.CO;2, 1996. a, b
Tang, B. H., Fang, J., Bentley, A., Kilroy, G., Nakano, M., Park, M.-S., Rajasree, V., Wang, Z., Wing, A. A., and Wu, L.: Recent advances in research on tropical cyclogenesis, Trop. Cycl. Res. Review, 9, 87–105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcrr.2020.04.004, 2020. a
Terpstra, A. and Spengler, T.: An initialization method for idealized channel simulations, Mon. Weather Rev., 143, 2043–2051, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-14-00248.1, 2015. a
Thorncroft, C. and Hoskins, B.: Frontal cyclogenesis, J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 2317–2336, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1990)047<2317:FC>2.0.CO;2, 1990. a
Tierney, G., Posselt, D. J., and Booth, J. F.: An examination of extratropical cyclone response to changes in baroclinicity and temperature in an idealized environment, Clim. Dynam., 51, 3829–3846, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4115-5, 2018. a
Ullrich, P. and Jablonowski, C.: Operator-split Runge–Kutta–Rosenbrock methods for nonhydrostatic atmospheric models, Mon. Weather Rev., 140, 1257–1284, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-10-05073.1, 2012. a
Ullrich, P. A., Melvin, T., Jablonowski, C., and Staniforth, A.: A proposed baroclinic wave test case for deep-and shallow-atmosphere dynamical cores, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 140, 1590–1602, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2241, 2014. a
Wang, S. and Polvani, L. M.: Double tropopause formation in idealized baroclinic life cycles: The key role of an initial tropopause inversion layer, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D05108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015118, 2011. a
Willison, J., Robinson, W. A., and Lackmann, G. M.: The importance of resolving mesoscale latent heating in the North Atlantic storm track, J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 2234–2250, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-0226.1, 2013. a
Yau, M. K. and Rogers, R. R.: A short course in cloud physics, Elsevier Science, ISBN 9780080570945, 1996. a
Short summary
An analytical initial background state has been developed for moist baroclinic wave simulation on an aquaplanet and implemented into OpenIFS. Seven parameters can be controlled, which are used to generate the background states and the development of baroclinic waves. The meteorological and numerical stability has been assessed. Resulting baroclinic waves have proven to be realistic and sensitive to the jet's width.
An analytical initial background state has been developed for moist baroclinic wave simulation...