Articles | Volume 12, issue 7
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2797-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-12-2797-2019
© Author(s) 2019. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Weather and climate forecasting with neural networks: using general circulation models (GCMs) with different complexity as a study ground
Sebastian Scher
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Department of Meteorology and Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Gabriele Messori
Department of Meteorology and Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
Viewed
Total article views: 6,753 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Cumulative views and downloads
(calculated since 04 Mar 2019)
HTML | XML | Total | Supplement | BibTeX | EndNote | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4,121 | 2,560 | 72 | 6,753 | 542 | 108 | 90 |
- HTML: 4,121
- PDF: 2,560
- XML: 72
- Total: 6,753
- Supplement: 542
- BibTeX: 108
- EndNote: 90
Total article views: 5,546 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Cumulative views and downloads
(calculated since 10 Jul 2019)
HTML | XML | Total | Supplement | BibTeX | EndNote | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3,435 | 2,043 | 68 | 5,546 | 434 | 104 | 86 |
- HTML: 3,435
- PDF: 2,043
- XML: 68
- Total: 5,546
- Supplement: 434
- BibTeX: 104
- EndNote: 86
Total article views: 1,207 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Cumulative views and downloads
(calculated since 04 Mar 2019)
HTML | XML | Total | Supplement | BibTeX | EndNote | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
686 | 517 | 4 | 1,207 | 108 | 4 | 4 |
- HTML: 686
- PDF: 517
- XML: 4
- Total: 1,207
- Supplement: 108
- BibTeX: 4
- EndNote: 4
Viewed (geographical distribution)
Total article views: 6,753 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Thereof 6,011 with geography defined
and 742 with unknown origin.
Total article views: 5,546 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Thereof 4,950 with geography defined
and 596 with unknown origin.
Total article views: 1,207 (including HTML, PDF, and XML)
Thereof 1,061 with geography defined
and 146 with unknown origin.
Country | # | Views | % |
---|
Country | # | Views | % |
---|
Country | # | Views | % |
---|
Total: | 0 |
HTML: | 0 |
PDF: | 0 |
XML: | 0 |
- 1
1
Total: | 0 |
HTML: | 0 |
PDF: | 0 |
XML: | 0 |
- 1
1
Total: | 0 |
HTML: | 0 |
PDF: | 0 |
XML: | 0 |
- 1
1
Cited
75 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Optimization of deep learning model for coastal chlorophyll a dynamic forecast D. Wenxiang et al. 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.109913
- Generalization properties of feed-forward neural networks trained on Lorenz systems S. Scher & G. Messori 10.5194/npg-26-381-2019
- 地球表层特征参量反演与模拟的机理<bold>-</bold>学习耦合范式 焕. 沈 & 良. 张 10.1360/SSTe-2022-0089
- A Metadata-Enhanced Deep Learning Method for Sea Surface Height and Mesoscale Eddy Prediction R. Zhu et al. 10.3390/rs16081466
- Applying Machine Learning in Numerical Weather and Climate Modeling Systems V. Krasnopolsky 10.3390/cli12060078
- Analog Forecasting of Extreme‐Causing Weather Patterns Using Deep Learning A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1029/2019MS001958
- Data-driven global weather predictions at high resolutions J. Taylor et al. 10.1177/10943420211039818
- Improving climate model skill over High Mountain Asia by adapting snow cover parameterization to complex-topography areas M. Lalande et al. 10.5194/tc-17-5095-2023
- Deep-learning-based information mining from ocean remote-sensing imagery X. Li et al. 10.1093/nsr/nwaa047
- Temperature forecasts for the continental United States: a deep learning approach using multidimensional features J. Ali & L. Cheng 10.3389/fclim.2024.1289332
- Ensemble numerical weather prediction model to improve the efficiency of Henan parameterization scheme X. Ma et al. 10.2478/amns-2024-2813
- Non‐Gaussian Detection Using Machine Learning With Data Assimilation Applications M. Goodliff et al. 10.1029/2021EA001908
- Machine learning for weather and climate are worlds apart D. Watson-Parris 10.1098/rsta.2020.0098
- Reducing data-driven dynamical subgrid scale models by physical constraints W. Edeling & D. Crommelin 10.1016/j.compfluid.2020.104470
- Artificial Intelligence and Its Application in Numerical Weather Prediction S. Soldatenko 10.3103/S1068373924040010
- RF-Based Moisture Content Determination in Rice Using Machine Learning Techniques N. Azmi et al. 10.3390/s21051875
- Predicting climate change using an autoregressive long short-term memory model S. Chin & V. Lloyd 10.3389/fenvs.2024.1301343
- Advances and prospects of deep learning for medium-range extreme weather forecasting L. Olivetti & G. Messori 10.5194/gmd-17-2347-2024
- Identifying atmospheric rivers and their poleward latent heat transport with generalizable neural networks: ARCNNv1 A. Mahesh et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-3533-2024
- Can Machines Learn to Predict Weather? Using Deep Learning to Predict Gridded 500‐hPa Geopotential Height From Historical Weather Data J. Weyn et al. 10.1029/2019MS001705
- Selection of CMIP6 GCM with projection of climate over the Amu Darya River Basin O. Salehie et al. 10.1007/s00704-022-04332-w
- Temperature forecasting by deep learning methods B. Gong et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8931-2022
- Statistical Seasonal Prediction of European Summer Mean Temperature Using Observational, Reanalysis, and Satellite Data M. Pyrina et al. 10.1175/WAF-D-20-0235.1
- Stabilizing machine learning prediction of dynamics: Novel noise-inspired regularization tested with reservoir computing A. Wikner et al. 10.1016/j.neunet.2023.10.054
- Improved Weather Forecasting Using Neural Network Emulation for Radiation Parameterization H. Song & S. Roh 10.1029/2021MS002609
- Deep blue AI: A new bridge from data to knowledge for the ocean science G. Chen et al. 10.1016/j.dsr.2022.103886
- Deep Learning-Based Extreme Heatwave Forecast V. Jacques-Dumas et al. 10.3389/fclim.2022.789641
- Optimal Input Variables Disposition of Artificial Neural Networks Models for Enhancing Time Series Forecasting Accuracy H. Fogno Fotso et al. 10.1080/08839514.2020.1782003
- Training a convolutional neural network to conserve mass in data assimilation Y. Ruckstuhl et al. 10.5194/npg-28-111-2021
- Prior-Guided gated convolutional networks for rainstorm forecasting T. Zhang et al. 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.130962
- A data-driven model based on modal decomposition: application to the turbulent channel flow over an anisotropic porous wall S. Le Clainche et al. 10.1017/jfm.2022.159
- Machine learning-based integration of large-scale climate drivers can improve the forecast of seasonal rainfall probability in Australia P. Feng et al. 10.1088/1748-9326/ab9e98
- A Deep Learning-Based Sensor Modeling for Smart Irrigation System M. Sami et al. 10.3390/agronomy12010212
- A sensitivity analysis of a regression model of ocean temperature R. Furner et al. 10.1017/eds.2022.10
- Application of LSTM Neural Network Technology Embedded in English Intelligent Translation Y. Yang & K. Sun 10.1155/2022/1085577
- Long-term stability and generalization of observationally-constrained stochastic data-driven models for geophysical turbulence A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1017/eds.2022.30
- Optimization of Deep Learning Precipitation Models Using Categorical Binary Metrics P. Larraondo et al. 10.1029/2019MS001909
- Opportunities and challenges for machine learning in weather and climate modelling: hard, medium and soft AI M. Chantry et al. 10.1098/rsta.2020.0083
- A generative adversarial network approach to (ensemble) weather prediction A. Bihlo 10.1016/j.neunet.2021.02.003
- Model-free short-term fluid dynamics estimator with a deep 3D-convolutional neural network M. Lopez-Martin et al. 10.1016/j.eswa.2021.114924
- Data‐Driven Super‐Parameterization Using Deep Learning: Experimentation With Multiscale Lorenz 96 Systems and Transfer Learning A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1029/2020MS002084
- Physics-informed neural networks for the shallow-water equations on the sphere A. Bihlo & R. Popovych 10.1016/j.jcp.2022.111024
- A Machine Learning‐Based Global Atmospheric Forecast Model T. Arcomano et al. 10.1029/2020GL087776
- Adjusting spatial dependence of climate model outputs with cycle-consistent adversarial networks B. François et al. 10.1007/s00382-021-05869-8
- Systematic Bias Correction in Ocean Mesoscale Forecasting Using Machine Learning G. Liu et al. 10.1029/2022MS003426
- Towards physics-inspired data-driven weather forecasting: integrating data assimilation with a deep spatial-transformer-based U-NET in a case study with ERA5 A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-2221-2022
- Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Icing-Related Wind Power Production Loss S. Scher & J. Molinder 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939657
- Enhancing geophysical flow machine learning performance via scale separation D. Faranda et al. 10.5194/npg-28-423-2021
- Machine learning for numerical weather and climate modelling: a review C. de Burgh-Day & T. Leeuwenburg 10.5194/gmd-16-6433-2023
- Improving Data‐Driven Global Weather Prediction Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks on a Cubed Sphere J. Weyn et al. 10.1029/2020MS002109
- WeatherBench: A Benchmark Data Set for Data‐Driven Weather Forecasting S. Rasp et al. 10.1029/2020MS002203
- Reservoir Computing as a Tool for Climate Predictability Studies B. Nadiga 10.1029/2020MS002290
- Data-Driven Weather Forecasting and Climate Modeling from the Perspective of Development Y. Wu & W. Xue 10.3390/atmos15060689
- Accurate medium-range global weather forecasting with 3D neural networks K. Bi et al. 10.1038/s41586-023-06185-3
- Scalable Projection-Based Reduced-Order Models for Large Multiscale Fluid Systems C. Wentland et al. 10.2514/1.J062869
- Short‐Term Precipitation Prediction for Contiguous United States Using Deep Learning G. Chen & W. Wang 10.1029/2022GL097904
- Purely satellite data–driven deep learning forecast of complicated tropical instability waves G. Zheng et al. 10.1126/sciadv.aba1482
- Physics-informed machine learning: case studies for weather and climate modelling K. Kashinath et al. 10.1098/rsta.2020.0093
- Temporal Subsampling Diminishes Small Spatial Scales in Recurrent Neural Network Emulators of Geophysical Turbulence T. Smith et al. 10.1029/2023MS003792
- Configuration and intercomparison of deep learning neural models for statistical downscaling J. Baño-Medina et al. 10.5194/gmd-13-2109-2020
- Multivariate bias correction and downscaling of climate models with trend-preserving deep learning F. Wang & D. Tian 10.1007/s00382-024-07406-9
- Ensemble Methods for Neural Network‐Based Weather Forecasts S. Scher & G. Messori 10.1029/2020MS002331
- Defining model complexity: An ecological perspective C. Malmborg et al. 10.1002/met.2202
- Hybrid analysis and modeling, eclecticism, and multifidelity computing toward digital twin revolution O. San et al. 10.1002/gamm.202100007
- Assessment of High‐Resolution Dynamical and Machine Learning Models for Prediction of Sea Ice Concentration in a Regional Application S. Fritzner et al. 10.1029/2020JC016277
- Spin-up characteristics with three types of initial fields and the restart effects on forecast accuracy in the GRAPES global forecast system Z. Ma et al. 10.5194/gmd-14-205-2021
- A dynamical systems characterization of atmospheric jet regimes G. Messori et al. 10.5194/esd-12-233-2021
- Developing an efficient climate forecasting model for the spatiotemporal climate dynamics estimation and the prediction that fits the variable topography feature of the upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia M. Wondie et al. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22870
- Emulating Earth system model temperatures with MESMER: from global mean temperature trajectories to grid-point-level realizations on land L. Beusch et al. 10.5194/esd-11-139-2020
- Projection of Hot and Cold Extremes in the Amu River Basin of Central Asia using GCMs CMIP6 O. Salehie et al. 10.1007/s00477-022-02201-6
- Mechanism-learning coupling paradigms for parameter inversion and simulation in earth surface systems H. Shen & L. Zhang 10.1007/s11430-022-9999-9
- A modified deep learning weather prediction using cubed sphere for global precipitation M. Singh et al. 10.3389/fclim.2022.1022624
- Diagnosing concurrent drivers of weather extremes: application to warm and cold days in North America D. Faranda et al. 10.1007/s00382-019-05106-3
- Detection of Non‐Gaussian Behavior Using Machine Learning Techniques: A Case Study on the Lorenz 63 Model M. Goodliff et al. 10.1029/2019JD031551
- Analysis of a Predictive Mathematical Model of Weather Changes Based on Neural Networks B. Malozyomov et al. 10.3390/math12030480
74 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Optimization of deep learning model for coastal chlorophyll a dynamic forecast D. Wenxiang et al. 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.109913
- Generalization properties of feed-forward neural networks trained on Lorenz systems S. Scher & G. Messori 10.5194/npg-26-381-2019
- 地球表层特征参量反演与模拟的机理<bold>-</bold>学习耦合范式 焕. 沈 & 良. 张 10.1360/SSTe-2022-0089
- A Metadata-Enhanced Deep Learning Method for Sea Surface Height and Mesoscale Eddy Prediction R. Zhu et al. 10.3390/rs16081466
- Applying Machine Learning in Numerical Weather and Climate Modeling Systems V. Krasnopolsky 10.3390/cli12060078
- Analog Forecasting of Extreme‐Causing Weather Patterns Using Deep Learning A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1029/2019MS001958
- Data-driven global weather predictions at high resolutions J. Taylor et al. 10.1177/10943420211039818
- Improving climate model skill over High Mountain Asia by adapting snow cover parameterization to complex-topography areas M. Lalande et al. 10.5194/tc-17-5095-2023
- Deep-learning-based information mining from ocean remote-sensing imagery X. Li et al. 10.1093/nsr/nwaa047
- Temperature forecasts for the continental United States: a deep learning approach using multidimensional features J. Ali & L. Cheng 10.3389/fclim.2024.1289332
- Ensemble numerical weather prediction model to improve the efficiency of Henan parameterization scheme X. Ma et al. 10.2478/amns-2024-2813
- Non‐Gaussian Detection Using Machine Learning With Data Assimilation Applications M. Goodliff et al. 10.1029/2021EA001908
- Machine learning for weather and climate are worlds apart D. Watson-Parris 10.1098/rsta.2020.0098
- Reducing data-driven dynamical subgrid scale models by physical constraints W. Edeling & D. Crommelin 10.1016/j.compfluid.2020.104470
- Artificial Intelligence and Its Application in Numerical Weather Prediction S. Soldatenko 10.3103/S1068373924040010
- RF-Based Moisture Content Determination in Rice Using Machine Learning Techniques N. Azmi et al. 10.3390/s21051875
- Predicting climate change using an autoregressive long short-term memory model S. Chin & V. Lloyd 10.3389/fenvs.2024.1301343
- Advances and prospects of deep learning for medium-range extreme weather forecasting L. Olivetti & G. Messori 10.5194/gmd-17-2347-2024
- Identifying atmospheric rivers and their poleward latent heat transport with generalizable neural networks: ARCNNv1 A. Mahesh et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-3533-2024
- Can Machines Learn to Predict Weather? Using Deep Learning to Predict Gridded 500‐hPa Geopotential Height From Historical Weather Data J. Weyn et al. 10.1029/2019MS001705
- Selection of CMIP6 GCM with projection of climate over the Amu Darya River Basin O. Salehie et al. 10.1007/s00704-022-04332-w
- Temperature forecasting by deep learning methods B. Gong et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8931-2022
- Statistical Seasonal Prediction of European Summer Mean Temperature Using Observational, Reanalysis, and Satellite Data M. Pyrina et al. 10.1175/WAF-D-20-0235.1
- Stabilizing machine learning prediction of dynamics: Novel noise-inspired regularization tested with reservoir computing A. Wikner et al. 10.1016/j.neunet.2023.10.054
- Improved Weather Forecasting Using Neural Network Emulation for Radiation Parameterization H. Song & S. Roh 10.1029/2021MS002609
- Deep blue AI: A new bridge from data to knowledge for the ocean science G. Chen et al. 10.1016/j.dsr.2022.103886
- Deep Learning-Based Extreme Heatwave Forecast V. Jacques-Dumas et al. 10.3389/fclim.2022.789641
- Optimal Input Variables Disposition of Artificial Neural Networks Models for Enhancing Time Series Forecasting Accuracy H. Fogno Fotso et al. 10.1080/08839514.2020.1782003
- Training a convolutional neural network to conserve mass in data assimilation Y. Ruckstuhl et al. 10.5194/npg-28-111-2021
- Prior-Guided gated convolutional networks for rainstorm forecasting T. Zhang et al. 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.130962
- A data-driven model based on modal decomposition: application to the turbulent channel flow over an anisotropic porous wall S. Le Clainche et al. 10.1017/jfm.2022.159
- Machine learning-based integration of large-scale climate drivers can improve the forecast of seasonal rainfall probability in Australia P. Feng et al. 10.1088/1748-9326/ab9e98
- A Deep Learning-Based Sensor Modeling for Smart Irrigation System M. Sami et al. 10.3390/agronomy12010212
- A sensitivity analysis of a regression model of ocean temperature R. Furner et al. 10.1017/eds.2022.10
- Application of LSTM Neural Network Technology Embedded in English Intelligent Translation Y. Yang & K. Sun 10.1155/2022/1085577
- Long-term stability and generalization of observationally-constrained stochastic data-driven models for geophysical turbulence A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1017/eds.2022.30
- Optimization of Deep Learning Precipitation Models Using Categorical Binary Metrics P. Larraondo et al. 10.1029/2019MS001909
- Opportunities and challenges for machine learning in weather and climate modelling: hard, medium and soft AI M. Chantry et al. 10.1098/rsta.2020.0083
- A generative adversarial network approach to (ensemble) weather prediction A. Bihlo 10.1016/j.neunet.2021.02.003
- Model-free short-term fluid dynamics estimator with a deep 3D-convolutional neural network M. Lopez-Martin et al. 10.1016/j.eswa.2021.114924
- Data‐Driven Super‐Parameterization Using Deep Learning: Experimentation With Multiscale Lorenz 96 Systems and Transfer Learning A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.1029/2020MS002084
- Physics-informed neural networks for the shallow-water equations on the sphere A. Bihlo & R. Popovych 10.1016/j.jcp.2022.111024
- A Machine Learning‐Based Global Atmospheric Forecast Model T. Arcomano et al. 10.1029/2020GL087776
- Adjusting spatial dependence of climate model outputs with cycle-consistent adversarial networks B. François et al. 10.1007/s00382-021-05869-8
- Systematic Bias Correction in Ocean Mesoscale Forecasting Using Machine Learning G. Liu et al. 10.1029/2022MS003426
- Towards physics-inspired data-driven weather forecasting: integrating data assimilation with a deep spatial-transformer-based U-NET in a case study with ERA5 A. Chattopadhyay et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-2221-2022
- Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Icing-Related Wind Power Production Loss S. Scher & J. Molinder 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939657
- Enhancing geophysical flow machine learning performance via scale separation D. Faranda et al. 10.5194/npg-28-423-2021
- Machine learning for numerical weather and climate modelling: a review C. de Burgh-Day & T. Leeuwenburg 10.5194/gmd-16-6433-2023
- Improving Data‐Driven Global Weather Prediction Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks on a Cubed Sphere J. Weyn et al. 10.1029/2020MS002109
- WeatherBench: A Benchmark Data Set for Data‐Driven Weather Forecasting S. Rasp et al. 10.1029/2020MS002203
- Reservoir Computing as a Tool for Climate Predictability Studies B. Nadiga 10.1029/2020MS002290
- Data-Driven Weather Forecasting and Climate Modeling from the Perspective of Development Y. Wu & W. Xue 10.3390/atmos15060689
- Accurate medium-range global weather forecasting with 3D neural networks K. Bi et al. 10.1038/s41586-023-06185-3
- Scalable Projection-Based Reduced-Order Models for Large Multiscale Fluid Systems C. Wentland et al. 10.2514/1.J062869
- Short‐Term Precipitation Prediction for Contiguous United States Using Deep Learning G. Chen & W. Wang 10.1029/2022GL097904
- Purely satellite data–driven deep learning forecast of complicated tropical instability waves G. Zheng et al. 10.1126/sciadv.aba1482
- Physics-informed machine learning: case studies for weather and climate modelling K. Kashinath et al. 10.1098/rsta.2020.0093
- Temporal Subsampling Diminishes Small Spatial Scales in Recurrent Neural Network Emulators of Geophysical Turbulence T. Smith et al. 10.1029/2023MS003792
- Configuration and intercomparison of deep learning neural models for statistical downscaling J. Baño-Medina et al. 10.5194/gmd-13-2109-2020
- Multivariate bias correction and downscaling of climate models with trend-preserving deep learning F. Wang & D. Tian 10.1007/s00382-024-07406-9
- Ensemble Methods for Neural Network‐Based Weather Forecasts S. Scher & G. Messori 10.1029/2020MS002331
- Defining model complexity: An ecological perspective C. Malmborg et al. 10.1002/met.2202
- Hybrid analysis and modeling, eclecticism, and multifidelity computing toward digital twin revolution O. San et al. 10.1002/gamm.202100007
- Assessment of High‐Resolution Dynamical and Machine Learning Models for Prediction of Sea Ice Concentration in a Regional Application S. Fritzner et al. 10.1029/2020JC016277
- Spin-up characteristics with three types of initial fields and the restart effects on forecast accuracy in the GRAPES global forecast system Z. Ma et al. 10.5194/gmd-14-205-2021
- A dynamical systems characterization of atmospheric jet regimes G. Messori et al. 10.5194/esd-12-233-2021
- Developing an efficient climate forecasting model for the spatiotemporal climate dynamics estimation and the prediction that fits the variable topography feature of the upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia M. Wondie et al. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22870
- Emulating Earth system model temperatures with MESMER: from global mean temperature trajectories to grid-point-level realizations on land L. Beusch et al. 10.5194/esd-11-139-2020
- Projection of Hot and Cold Extremes in the Amu River Basin of Central Asia using GCMs CMIP6 O. Salehie et al. 10.1007/s00477-022-02201-6
- Mechanism-learning coupling paradigms for parameter inversion and simulation in earth surface systems H. Shen & L. Zhang 10.1007/s11430-022-9999-9
- A modified deep learning weather prediction using cubed sphere for global precipitation M. Singh et al. 10.3389/fclim.2022.1022624
- Diagnosing concurrent drivers of weather extremes: application to warm and cold days in North America D. Faranda et al. 10.1007/s00382-019-05106-3
- Detection of Non‐Gaussian Behavior Using Machine Learning Techniques: A Case Study on the Lorenz 63 Model M. Goodliff et al. 10.1029/2019JD031551
1 citations as recorded by crossref.
Latest update: 14 Dec 2024
Short summary
Currently, weather forecasts are mainly produced by using computer models based on physical equations. It is an appealing idea to use neural networks and “deep learning” for weather forecasting instead. We successfully test the possibility of using deep learning for weather forecasting by considering climate models as simplified versions of reality. Our work therefore is a step towards potentially using deep learning to replace or accompany current weather forecasting models.
Currently, weather forecasts are mainly produced by using computer models based on physical...